SAXONY.

The minimum pay of teachers of the elementary schools is as follows: Places of 10,000 or few inhabitants, 280 thalers ($210); of more than 10,000, 300 thalers ($225).

In addition the teacher is lodged, and encouraged by an expectation of increased remuneration, which moves on the following scale:

Teachers of schools, of which the average attendance (effectif moyen) does not exceed 40 students, receive at each period an augmentation of $7.50. When the commune lacks the means to meet these charges, the State assumes them. There is a pension.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Without stopping to give the pay of the other and smaller members of the German Empire, we turn to the great Austro-Hungarian Empire, noted for its heterogenious population. We will content ourselves with giving the figures for Lower Austria (German), for Bohemia (Czech), and for Hungary (Maygar).

LOWER AUSTRIA.

All regular teachers are paid the following salary as a minimum:

In schools of the

First class

Second class..

Third class..

$300

315

270

When the school is taught by several teachers, the head of the school receives a supplementary amount of:

In schools of the

First class.
Second class.

Third class..

$90

45

23

The women are placed upon an equality with men in regard to salary. There is an increase of $23 every five years until the conclusion of the twentieth year of service. There is a pension.

The head of a school taught by several teachers receives a supplementary sum as in Lower Austria. There is no discrimination as to pay between the sexes. The five-years increase is 10 per cent. of the pay.

HUNGARY.

The pay of a regular teacher of an elementary school is $135; in addition to this a house and garden are provided. When local financial affairs demand it, a part of the salary is paid in produce. The aumentation for continuity of service is 10 per cent. of the pay. There is a pension.

BELGIUM.

The salary of the teacher is fixed by the communal council, with the approbation of the permanent committee (députation) but may be appealed to the King. This salary must not be lower than $200 for assistant teachers and $240 for teachers. The teacher is entitled in addition to a habitation. Every teacher who has not been disciplined has a right to an increase of pay as follows:

The expenses of primary instruction are borne by the communes, assisted under certain circumstances by the province and the State. There is a pension. The fol lowing table is fully explained by the heading:

Salaries of elementary school teachers in Belgium during 1881.

The heads of the following columns explain sufficiently well the figures of the table. An attempt to give an account of Switzerland as one whole is met by the difficulty we have in presenting a similar account of the United States; it is impossible to place the information before the reader in a few words. We, therefore, present the table of salaries only.

Salary of teachers.

Teachers.

Cantons.

ITALY.

As to the salary of the teachers the schools are divided into urban and rural, each class being subdivided into three. The minimum salaries were as follows:

The above figures were reduced a third for women, and a half for the underteachers, male and female, while in 1876 all grades of salaries were increased onetenth. There is a pension.

SPAIN.

There is no discrimination between the sexes. The salaries are:

In addition to the above, the teacher receives from each pupil who is able to pay it, an amount whose monthly average is in

The teacher is furnished with a suitable lodging for himself or herself and family. There is an arrangement by which the salary of the teacher is augmented.

PORTUGAL.

The minimum salary for teachers of elementary schools is, in the country, $112; in cities, $134; and in the large cities, $168. In addition to this the teacher is provided with a lodging. There is a pension.

HOLLAND.

Every male teacher receives a fixed salary which may not be less than $294 for the head of a school; $252 for masters having the rank of "chief teacher," who must preside over a school having more than 4 instructors; and $168 for the other masters. In addition the head of a school is lodged and, if possible, provided with a garden. There is a pension.

DENMARK.

At Copenhagen the salary of the teacher is for the first year about $284; at the end of four years of service this pay is raised to $364; and at the end of four years more, to $446. In the other cities and in the country the law of March 8, 1856, has considerably bettered the pecuniary condition of the teacher. Their pay is made up of a fixed annual sum, a certain number of bushels of wheat, the value of which they receive in money according to the current price, a lodging, and in the country a field and a determined quantity of forage and fuel. The sum total of these constitutes a revenue that is rarely less than $224, and sometimes exceeds $448 or $504; in the average, however, it is between $284 and $392. It should be added that the annual supplements" to the salary vary from $14 to $28. The salary of the women teachers is in general almost a third less than that of the men. There is a pension.

NORWAY.

The law of July 12, 1848, fixes the minimum salary in cities at $168, besides lodging and fire for teacher and family. The law of May 22, 1869, has modified this but little. In the cities of the six dioceses of the country the following figures show the average pay for 1878 for men and women:

In the country every school district should provide the teacher with a house, with a garden and other land sufficient to support two cows. The salary of the teachers, whether men or women, as well as the under teacher, is "supplemented by a grant of 56 cents a week from the public treasure. If the minimum salary fixed for each week by the district is $2.24 for men and $1.40 for women, they receive weekly about 56 cents more [in addition to the 56 cents named above] from public funds, and after five years of service, 84 cents for men and 56 cents for women.

SWEDEN.

The teacher of an elementary school, whether in city or country, should receive annually not less than $140, besides lodging, fire, a garden, and food for a cow. There is a pension.

GREECE.

Teachers of the first class (in towns) received $28 a month; of the second class, $20, and of the third class, $16. The directors of the elementary schools of Athens, of Syra, of Patras, and of Corfu receive $36 a month. There is a pension.

CHAPTER XIII.

PROFESSIONAL WORK IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES.'

THE RELATION OF THE OBJECT OF EDUCATION TO THE NORMAL-SCHOOL CURRICULUM.

It is frequently asserted that as law schools teach law and medical schools medicine, normal schools should teach pedagogy. But the lawyer-the graduate of the law school-does not carefully instruct his client as to the mysteries of a contract or a tort, nor the physician his patient in therapeutics or symptomatology; for the object of the one is to present his case in its most favorable light and of the other to restore his patient to health. Thus both use their art to effect its object; that object becoming more generally effected, certainly so in the case of medicine, as a science is developed from the practice of the art.

Now, if an inquiring mind were to ask, "What object does the science and art of teaching propose to itself?" it may be that different ages and different nations would give different answers. Because it is a "chief project of that old deluder Satan to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures," said the Puritans, adding, "to the end that learning may not be buried in the grave of our forefathers."2 Because "the very life-spring of the Reformation was reading the Bible by the laity," 3 said Luther and his brother reformers in Germany. Because a boy knowing how to read "might read his Bible and learn to fear God and be ashamed and afraid to do wrong," said Knox and others who established the parish schools of Scotland. Because it is necessary to make "little boys and girls into free men," says the French Republic in its year III (1794). Because it is necessary to develop the threefold nature of the child, says the Nineteenth Century, etc.

5

It is quite fair to conclude from the foregoing that illiteracy was, in the days of the Reformation, the evil that was to be guarded against, and that then the production of free men or the harmonious development of the threefold nature of the child would take care of itself. Under such circumstances the science and art of teaching was a very simple matter indeed, though somewhat above the capacity of a modern gravedigger or bell ringer. But this simplicity is turned into the highest complexity when, in order to effect the pupil's harmonious development, it has become the teacher's duty not only to teach the child to read, but in addition to contend with heredity, with bad home influences, and insufficient food and clothing, for it necessitates the teacher's own harmonious development as a many-sided genius in the first place. To give the requisite pedagogical training, certain studies have been introduced in our schools for training teachers which go by the generic name of

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES.

The conditions as to time and place under which these studies are pursued is set forth in the tables and analyses that immediately follow, but as an introduction to them it is advisable to dwell briefly on the study of psychology, since it is claimed that psychology is the basis of the science of education.

We all know of Monsieur Compayré, whose History of Pedagogy has been translated and annotated for us by Professor Payne. In a late work on "Psychology

1 See note, p. 275.

Massachusetts School Code of 1647. See also act of 1642.

National Education by Max Müller. By the Saxon code of 1580 the gravedigger or the bell ringer had in addition to his duty of teaching the children in a Sunday school, the daily duty of instructing, them to read. The text-books were the Lutheran Catechism, a little book of Psalmis, Solomon's Proverbs, and the New Testament.

Education: An address delivered to the students at St. Andrew's College, March 19, 1869, by James Anthony Froude.

Décret relatif à la constitution des écoles primaires, by the National Convention, Chap. I, art. 1.