apparent by the following columns of figures. Among one hundred schools there were:

There were 26,289 schools graded in two classes in purely rural districts in 1887; there were 1,187 schools of six, and 290 schools of seven and more grades, a total of 1,477 fully graded schools; these had 16,140 class rooms. The proportion of rural or ungraded schools to city or graded schools is:

Hence less than one-half of the Prussian children were enrolled in graded schools; more than one-third in entirely ungraded schools. Dr. Schneider, in discussing these figures, says:

It is an undisputed fact, that the ungraded schools, manned as they are, with well trained graduates of normal schools, accomplish very satisfactory results. * * Skill, endurance, professional zeal, and last but not least, the greater physical strength of their teachers are naturally of beneficial influence. It is well to remember, then, that the graded city school is not under all circumstances, and hence should not brevi manu be considered the better school.

* *

An American author who inspected the Prussian "cross-road schools," remarks:

I expected to find in them results such as may be found in the school of an American back wood settlement, primitive in the extreme. But I was greatly mistaken. What I saw was admirable work and almost incredible results.

In 1887 the Prussian people's schools had 64,750 teachers (male and female) and 1,303 assistants, the latter preparing for their diplomas. Industrial handicraft for women was taught by 34,270 female instructors, of whom 5,496 had passed their examinations, while most of the others were wives of country school teachers. The number of pensioned teachers was 4,211. That is, for every 20 teachers of graded schools and for every 14 teachers of ungraded schools, there was one pensioner. The salaries paid in 1887 to the teachers of people's schools amounted to 75,000,000 marks (about $19,000,000), hence the average salary was 1,162 marks (or about $300). To this should be added the rent, for nearly all teachers in Prussia live in schoolhouses or dwellings belonging to the school; if not, an average equivalent for rent is paid by the

community. If the rent be counted in as 20 per cent. of the income, the average salary would be about $360.

Forty-four million marks (or $11,000,000) were expended in 1886 for the erection and improvement of buildings. Most schoolhouses in cities are of recent origin, as is seen plainly from the following statements: From 1874 till 1882, 5,975 new buildings were erected and 2,710 buildings were enlarged, at a total cost of 117,000,000 marks ($29,250,000). From 1883 till 1886, 3,977 new buildings were erected and 3,975 buildings were enlarged, at a total cost of 104,000,000 marks ($26,000,000). Eighty-seven per cent. of the cost of erection was defrayed by the communities, 13 by the state. The city of Berlin alone spent 1,375,000 marks ($343,750) in eight years for new school buildings, which seems a very moderate sum if compared with the efforts made in this direction in large cities of this country; but it must be borne in mind that this sum excludes all middle and high schools and only includes "people's schools" (that is, elementary schools). The entire amount spent for the people's schools in Berlin (1886) was 83 million marks (a little over $2,000,000).

Dr. Schneider makes a curious statement which may cause astonish. ment in this country, namely, that seventy is considered the "normal number of pupils" in graded schools, eighty in ungraded schools. These "normal" numbers do not indicate the facts as they are, for 46.1 per cent. of the pupils of the kingdom (2,233,373) sat in overcrowded class rooms, i. e., rooms which held more than the "normal" numbers mentioned. The different provinces of the kingdom differ greatly in regard to this point. Thus, for instance, 91.85 per cent. of the children of Berlin were seated in class rooms that had no more than the normal number, while other districts ranged as low as 29.13 per cent., 27.83 per cent., and even 15.70 per cent.

The cost per capita in Prussian people's schools is stated for a few places, to wit:

IV. A FOREIGNER'S VIEWS OF THE GERMAN SCHOOLS.

In 1886, Dr. R. Laishley, officer of public instruction in New Zealand, was sent to Europe to study the school systems there and report his observations. His report was published, and the views it contains

about the German schools are worthy of reproduction since they betray rare penetration.

Dr. Laishley says, under the head "Result of Investigations:"

The results of what I have heard, seen, and read induce me to believe

(1) That the Germans, in pursuance of a policy to become the strongest of all nations, by excelling in civil as in military affairs, have concluded that, in order to secure the most successful results possible from national education, thorough discipline of mind and body is indispensable; and to facilitate this that there must be at least —(a) consideration for the feelings of (virtually) all in religious matters; (b) local government, including regulation of religious instruction (subject to the protection of minorities), of direct local taxation, of expenditure, and of administrative details; (c) religion (subject to certain conscience-clause provisions) considered as the basis of instruction, and therefore placed as the primary subject on elementary school programmes; (d) compulsory attendance laws; (e) thorough qualification of all teachers for private as well as for public schools; (f) and recognition of the great importance of gymnastic exercises.

So that in Germany, as in Switzerland, we find friction between the State and the citizens in religious matters provided against; religion, universality, thoroughness in detail, thrift, and adaptation to local circumstances provided for by local government, and compulsory-attendance laws; physical strength and vigor promoted by gymnastic exercises; and discipline established and maintained and correct information imparted, in the most systematic mode possible, by thoroughly qualified teachers. The consequence is education-not merely instruction—is carried out under most favorable circumstances, with no thwarting undercurrent of religious or local influences.

(2) That preëminent attention is paid to scientific knowledge in all the higher institutions, and to the study of philosophy in the universities; and

(3) That extreme exactness and minuteness are insisted upon.

These three points require a few more comments. Consideration in religious matters is granted under peculiar circumstances, viz, (a) as in Switzerland, there are differing nationalities and languages; (b) districts in which the majority are devoted to a particular religion other than that of the greatest number of the nation; and (c) amongst the learned classes-the thinkers, and therefore the rulers of national action-an almost universal spirit of scepticism in matters pertaining to Christianity. We, however, find the learned classes not tyrannically enforcing or insisting upon their own tenets, but exemplifying (a) that whatever conclusions they may have arrived at ought not to be arbitrarily imposed upon others; (b) that tyrannical action in matters of religion is not only unjust and impolitic if the utmost limits of ascertainable truth are to be reached, but death to national peace, and hence to national happiness; (c) that the only policy worthy of a great nation in religious matters is not merely toleration, but consideration for the present feelings of (virtually) all; (d) that such universal and thorough disciplinary processes, by means of local machinery and otherwise, should be provided as will enable each person to obtain the discipline and knowledge requisite to form just conclusions on religious and all other truth and error; and (e) that in order to attain that object there should be no friction, no religious bitterness, no chafing or undue interference with liberty of thought or action in matters of individual or primarily local concern, and a removal, as far as practicable, of all influences which may, by being irritating, prove hostile or obstructive to the grand aim in view-training a naturally hardy people to sound views and able and vigorous action.

The discipline secured by thorough training of teachers is very apparent. It is recognized as enabling (a) a wider range of subjects to be covered, and (b) a thorough mastery of them, and (c) such a digesting of what is taught as would not otherwise be possible. Indeed discipline insuring the estimating of everything at its exact

value seems to be a preeminently excelling feature of German education-a feature more real in Germany, in my opinion, even than in Switzerland.

There is liberal expenditure in the promotion of gymnastics. It is recognized that without such physical exercises the extreme severity of the examinations would not be practicable, except to detriment the physical and mental health, even in the bracing climate of Germany. And it is widely admitted that even the present attention to gymnastic training is not sufficient to prevent "overpressure," as evidenced by defective eyesight, etc.

I ascribe the virtues mentioned to the influence of the preeminent study of philosophy in the universities, and to the exceptional division of the nation into so many independent sovereignties; the former cause producing, amongst the ruling classes, (a) a clear perception of what renders a nation happy, and (b) how such happiness is to be attained, and the latter "a sort of emulation" whereby the improvements, realized at any one point were gradually adopted by the entire nation. For in Germany we find (a) in religious matters the feature of the greatest skepticism with the greatest consideration; and (b) that the study of philosophy has resulted in such national culture as has enabled Germany to take strides in recent years in warlike and peaceful pursuits as are elsewhere unknown in Europe, which creates belief that the study of philosophy should be a prime element in any national system of higher culture.

The extreme exactness and minuteness referred to would seem to be a blemish, an unhealthy dissipator, rather than a conservator for the accumulation and digestion of knowledge. But whether this should be guarded against by counter healthful action, in the form of increased muscular exercise or otherwise, or remedied by a diminution of particularity, it is here, of course, outside of my province to discuss. General features.-Some further information on general features is now given: (1) Elementary education in day schools is compulsory for all children, from the age of six to that of fourteen, unless competent instruction is being obtained elsewhere; and subject, of course, to temporary absences for valid reasons; which reasons are very similar in all the States. Applications for permanent exemption, however, are in proportion rare, for there are comparatively few private schools, and little private tuition; the children of the rich being tutored generally, when not at primary schools, at preparatory gymnasia before going to secondary schools proper. Default in attendance is punishable by fine or imprisonment; but generally it is uncommon.

Children are duly protected against injurious (including premature) employment. There is no regulation, other than those relating to compulsory attendance, which defines school age, or limits attendance. But, of course, there are certain ages when it is considered that pupils should attend a certain grade of school or learn certain subjects, and the gradation of tuition is considered to be excellent. For instance, in Berlin the usual rule is, (a) infant school from the age of two to six; (b) preparatory gymnasium, six to nine; (c) gymnasium course-with Latin from nine, with French from ten, with Greek from thirteen, with Hebrew from fifteen and sixteen; and thence to university. In real schools the same ages apply, substituting English, and stress on mathematics and natural science for Greek and Hebrew. In many State gymnasia, for instance, throughout Prussia and in Leipsic, the course is for nine years preparatory for the university, which pupils usually enter at the age of nineteen or twenty; but they must pass the final examination at the gymnasium before entering the university.

(2) Religious instruction is given in secondary as well as primary schools. To show further how essential it is considered it is laid down, as affecting Saxony at least"The Volksschule has for its object the religious training as one part of universal human education." Such instruction is given as the local managers of a school (who represent the inhabitants of a district or parish) decide, whether they be Protestant or Roman Catholic, with, however, liberty for those nonconcurring to retain their children from school during the period of religious instruction.