thus, Cephallenia, Leucadia, and the | he had never visited in preference to neighbouring mainland of Greece, as one well known to him? And what will at once be seen by a mere glance is there in Ithaca-a mere rugged and at the catalogue of ships in the Iliad, barren rock-to justify such preferor at the picture-like sketch of the sur- ence? Again, no one can pass from rounding scenery in Virgil (En., iii. the description of Phæacia, or of the 270 et seq.). More detailed proofs may country of the Cyclops and Lotusbe drawn from numerous passages in eaters, to that of Ithaca, without feelthe Odyssey, and from the internal ing that he has exchanged a land features of the island; to every sceptic of dreams for real and practical life. I would say, like Athene to Ulysses, This difference must originate in the mind of the poet, not in the minds of his hearers or readers. With Ithaca 'Αλλ' άγε τοι δείξω Ιθάκης ἕδος, ὄφρα πεποίθης.* "Wouldst thou thy breast from faithless doubts set free, O come, and view thy Ithaca with me." "There is something," says Dr. Wordsworth, "very fascinating in thus being brought into immediate contact with Homeric scenery and characters, and in reading with our own eyes the origin of which his poem is a transcript." The same accomplished writer argues that the author of the Odyssey' must have been really acquainted with Ithaca from the leading idea and moral of his poem, namely, the paramount love of country, which all the dangers of sea and land and all the witcheries of fairy islands cannot uproot from the breast of his hero. It is impossible to doubt that the poet had travelled in different regions of the world; is it probable that he would have laid the scene of a long poem in a country which * Od., xiii. 344. The arguments on the sceptical side of the question have been collected and arranged in a very subtle and elaborate manner by Professor Völker in his 'Geographia Homerica;' but they have been successfully confuted in a pamphlet by Rühle von Lilienstern, Ueber das Homerische Ithaca,' The fonduess with which Homer evidently dwells on the scenery of Ithaca gave rise to a report that he was a native of the island, and we accordingly find it enumerated among the seven cities which disputed the honour of having given birth to the poet: · Επτὰ πόλεις μάρναντο σοφὴν διὰ ῥίζαν Ομήρου, Σμύρνα, Χίος, Κολοφών, Ιθάκη, Πύλος, Αργος, ̓Αθῆναι. But his biographer accounts for his perfect knowledge of the island by his having been detained there in the course of his travels by a severe disorder of the eyes, when he is said to have been kindly entertained by Mentor, one of the principal inhabitants, whom he has made so prominent a character in the Odyssey-(Vit. Hom.' 7.) he was so well acquainted that he was not obliged to draw upon his fancy for the main features of its scenery. One great reason why the modern Ithaca has ceased, in the minds of some commentators, to bear any resemblance at all to the Ithaca of the Odyssey,' is, perhaps, the fact that certain other scholars have proposed it as too minute a portrait of the poetic island, professing to have seen the very mill in which Ulysses ground his corn, and the very chamber in which Penelope wove her web. "The traveller who discovers everything leads all the world to suspect that he has, in reality, found nothing." "From a poet we cannot, of course, expect the rigid accuracy of the landsurveyor; but to pretend that Homer was not well acquainted with Ithaca, because one or two fastidious commentators may find some difficulty in arranging his localities on their classical atlas, is almost as unreasonable as it would be to deny Shakspeare all personal knowledge of Windsor Forest, because of a similar difficulty in identifying Herne the Hunter's oak. Moreover, there have been discovered in the island a great number of coins and medals-those picture-books of antiquity-bearing the head of Ulysses with a pileus or conical cap, and the legend Ιθακῶν ;—the reverse generally exhibiting a cock-an emblem of the hero's vigilance,-Athene, his tutelar deity-or Argus, his faithful dog. 66 "Again, its own inhabitants have never ceased to apply to this island its classical name of Ithaca. Every *See Dr. Wordsworth's 'Greece,' p. 273-280. peasant is well acquainted with the | the agora, Jupiter sends down sudname of Ulysses, and looks on him denly from the mountain-top a pair as the hero of his country; although of eagles, which hover with ominous of course as few of them can be found who know his story accurately, as peasants in Scotland who are precisely informed of the history of Robert Bruce or of William Wallace."* The principal excursions to be made in Ithaca are:-1. To the Castle of Ulysses. 2. To the Fountain of Arethusa. 3. To the so-called School of Homer. 1. On the sides and summit of the rocky hill of Aetos, which rises to the height of 1200 ft. above the sea on the narrow isthmus connecting the two divisions of the island, and about 4 m. from the town of Bathy, are situated the ancient remains called by the Ithacans "the old Castle of Ulysses." Every ruin whatsoever is known among the Greek peasants as TáλαιÒν Kάσтρov, just as among the lower orders in Ireland as an "ould forth" (old fort). Among the thick underwood which covers the sides of the hill may be traced several lines of enclosure, testifying to the highest antiquity in the rude structure of massive stones which compose them. They furnish a specimen of what are called Cyclopean remains. The situation of several gates is distinctly marked among the ruins of the Castle of Ulysses; there are also the remains of two large subterranean cisterns and some appearances of a tower. There can be little doubt that this is the place to which Cicero alludes in praising the patriotism of Ulysses,-"how the wisest of men preferred even to immortality that Ithaca, which is fixed, like a bird's nest, among the most rugged of rocks." The name too of Aetos -i.e. the Eagle's Cliff-recalls the remarkable scene in the Odyssey' (ii. 146) where, during the debate in For other arguments to the same effect, we refer to Mure's Journal of a Tour in Greece,' and to Sir George Bowen's Ithaca in 1850,' which we have chiefly followed in this account of the island. + Cicero, De Oratore, i. 44, "ut Ithacam illam, in asperrimis saxis tanquam nidulum affixam, sapientissimus vir immortalitati anti poneret." flight over the wondering crowd. If more substantial proofs are wanting, such trifling coincidences would alone afford a strong presumption that the Ithaca of Homer was something more than the creature of his own fancy, as some have supposed it. "Though the grand outline of a fable," says Sir W. Gell, "may be easily imgined, yet the consistent adaptation of minute incidents to a long and elaborate falsehood is a task of the most arduous and complicated nature." The view from the Castle of Ulysses is most interesting and magnificent. On one side, you look down on the winding strait, separating Ithaca from Cephalonia, whose rugged mountains rise abruptly from the water; and, at the distance of about 10 m., may be clearly distinguished the ruins of the ancient city of Same or Samos, whence came four-and-twenty of the suitors of Penelope (Apollodorus, quoted by Strabo, x. 2). On the other side, the great port of Ithaca, with all its rocks and creeks, lies immediately below your feet. To the E. the eye ranges over clusters of "Summer isles of Eden lying in dark purple spheres of sea to the mountains of Acarnania, rising ridge above ridge. To the S., the horizon is bounded by the high peaks of the Peloponnesus, crowned with snow the greater part of the year, and glit tering in the glorious sunshine. To the N., Leucadia ends in the bold white headland called Sappho's Leap the lover's refuge, and the Lesbian's grave." At the base of the "castled crag" of Ulysses have been discovered numerous tombs, several marbles with sepulchral inscriptions, and many bronze figures, vases, and lacrymalia, as well as gold rings and other ornaments, many of them of delicate and beautiful workmanship. Here was the ancient cemetery of Ithaca. In the Greek islands the tombs generally lined the shore of the sea, that high way of their surviving friends, from the same feeling doubtless which placed the graves of the ancient Romans along the sides of their streets and roads, as is proved by the ruins of Pompeii, and by the often-recurring inscription, "Siste, Viator"-"Stop, wayfarer.' Among the rocks to the westward of the modern town may also be traced some ancient sepulchres hewn out of the solid stone. One of them is surmounted by a rude female figure, and of course is popularly called "the Grave of Penelope." The excursion to the Castle of Ulysses may be extended to the Convent of Kathara, on the western side of Neritos, and about 1 hr. over a good road from Bathy. This point, being higher above the sea, commands a still more magnificent prospect than that from the hill of Aetos. The village of Anoge is only 20 minutes beyond the Convent; and hence the traveller may reach, by a bridle-path, the socalled "School of Homer," through Marrona and Fikes, and then return to Bathy by Stamos,-in all a circuit of about 25 m. The summit of Mount Neritos, 2350 ft. above the sea-level, may be reached easily from the village of Anoge. 2. Near the S.E. extremity of the island, and about 5 m. from Bathy, rises a beautiful white cliff, fronting the sea. From its foot, a narrow glen clothed with the evergreen and aromatic shrubs of Greece descends by a rapid slope to the shore, framing, as in a picture, between its leafy precipices glorious prospects of the sea and of the Acarnanian Mountains. In a recess on this declivity is a natural and never failing reservoir, which the tradition of the islanders identifies with Homer's fountain of Arethusa. They also have never ceased to call the cliff Korax, i. e. the Raven-rock, and the ravens which may often be seen soaring around it, as if it were their favourite haunt, speak home to the conviction with greater force than whole pages of quotation and argument. This then is probably the very precipice to which the poet refers when he represents Ulysses as challenging Eumæus "to throw him over the great rock" if he finds that he is speaking false (Od., xiv. 398); and there is every reason to believe that the little plain hard by was the swineherd's station (Od., xiii. 407). At the present day we may observe that the Greek herdsmen always make their encampments near wells and springs; and such a source and such shelter as are found on this spot must have ever been valuable and celebrated in so thirsty a soil. It is literally "a river of water in a dry place, the shadow of a great rock in a weary land." The description given by Homer of Eumæus' station is curiously like some cottages near this spot at present. Their position is "a place of open prospect' (περισκέπτῳ ἐνὶ xp); each hut is "surrounded with a circular court" (avλǹ пeрldрoμos); enclosed by a rude wall of loose stones, crowned with chevaux-de-frise of prickly plants (axépow), and a thick palisade of stakes. Similar are the rude encampments of the shepherds in all parts of Greece. These wigwams, when erected for only temporary shelter by wandering tribes of Wallachians-those Scythians of the present day-" quorum plaustra vagas ritè trahunt domos "-consist of merely a few poles thatched with straw or green boughs, and the wild inmates, crouching round their fires, forcibly call to mind some of those whom "Dall' alte selve irsuti manda La divisa dal mondo ultima Irlanda."† On approaching hamlets and sheepfolds in all parts of Greece, the stranger is certain to find a somewhat disagreeable coincidence with Homer in being assailed, as fiercely as was Ulysses, by a pack of dogs. The number and ferocity of these descendants of the famous Molossian Od., xiv. 5-12. These shepherds' huts are now called kaußia, a word used by Plutarch (Pompey, 73); and a diminutive of kaλußn, often found in the ancient writers.-Cf. Batrachomyomachia, 30; Herod. v. 16; Thucyd. i. 133. † Tasso, 'Gerusalemme Liberata,' Canto i. 44. sheepfold would, like Ulysses, be in considerable danger of being torn to pieces; but on the public path, or at a distance from the objects of their care, these dogs seldom come to close quarters, and the lifting a stone in a threatening way, or even the act of stooping to pick one up, has usually the effect of keeping them off. Hence the humorous allusion of Aristophanes (Equites, 1028). Λέγε δητ'· ἐγὼ δὲ πρῶτα λήψομαι λίθον, Ινα μή μ' δ χρησμὸς ὁ περὶ τοῦ κυνὸς δάκῃ. breed, resembling in appearance a cross between an English mastiff and sheepdog, is one of the peculiarities of the country which first attracts the attention of the traveller; and is also among the features of modern Greek life that supply the most curious illustrations of classical antiquity. Their masters are at first generally remiss in calling them off, which they imagine cows their spirit, and makes them useless against wolves and robbers; and yet whoever shoots. or seriously injures them is almost sure to get into a dangerous collision with the natives. This sometimes It has been observed too-with perhappens now-a-days to English shoot-haps as much of satire as of truthing parties, as it formerly did to Her- that a dog is never seen within the cules at Sparta.* The usual weapons walls of Greek churches, owing to of defence, therefore, are the large the terror inspired by the frequent loose stones, with which the rocky bowing of the congregation in the soil of Greece is everywhere strewed. course of their devotions, which the These are generally as large as a animal mistakes for stooping to lift can throw with one hand-up stones. A stranger finding himliterally the Homeric xepuádiov, or self in the same predicament as "handful," and " sharp and jagged" Ulysses when set upon by the dogs (orpióes) like those hurled by the of his own swineherd, should imitate heroes of the Tale of Troy divine.' the example of the king of Ithaca, Colonel Mure observes that it was and craftily (kepdoσúvn) sit down on a personal familiarity with this com- the ground, dropping all weapons of mon feature of Hellenic nature and defence (σкîπтроν dè оi ěkteσe xeiρós) Hellenic manners that first conveyed to his mind a clear and vivid impression of that often-recurring incident of Homer's battles, when the combatants resort to the arms of offence which their native soil so abundantly supplies. Even in more civilized ages this weapon does not seem to have fallen altogether into disuse among the Greek military; † and Sir Walter Scott tells us that in one of Montrose's battles, the Highlanders, when their ammunition had failed, drove back the Covenanters with volleys of stones. A solitary stranger suddenly entering a Greek man The *Cf. Pausanias, Lacom. xv., and Apollod. ii. 73. When Hercules visited Sparta, he was attended by his cousin, the young (Eonus, who killed a dog which attacked him. sons of Hippocoon, the owner of the animal, rushed in consequence upon (Eonus, and beat him to death with their clubs. Hence arose a bloody feud between Hercules and Hippocoon, which ended in the extermination of the latter with his whole family. + Cf. Lucian. De Gymnas,' 32. -until rescued by the Eumæus of the fold with "loud cries" and "thick showers of stones."* It is confidently asserted by eye-witnesses that the dogs will form a circle round the person who thus disarms their wrath and suspicion, and renew their attack only when he moves again. 3. The so-called School of Homer is situated near the village of Exoge in the northern division of the island. It consists of the substructions of some ancient buildings, perhaps a temple, and of several steps and niches cut in the rock. It is a sweet and pleasant spot, overgrown with rich festoons of ivy and other graceful creepers. Not very far off, and clinging to the side of Neritos, is the beautiful little village of Leuce, which, peeping out from the midst of wild *Od., xiv. 29-36. This passage explains Aristot. Rhet. ii. 3. ört de πpos TOUS TUTELVOVμένους παύεται ἡ ὀργὴ καὶ οἱ κύνες δηλοῦσιν ἢ οὐ δάκνοντες τοὺς καθίζοντας. luxuriant foliage, is considered with the only island is the rock now probability to occupy the site of the called Dascalion, situated exactly garden of Laertes (Od., xxiv. 204). opposite the entrance to Port Polis. One way of visiting this district is to It is therefore perfectly adapted to pass by the village of Anoge, alluded the purposes of the suitors if the to above; but perhaps the best way capital was at Polis; indeed there is is to go in a boat from Bathy to the no other harbour, nor any other islittle port of Frikés at the N.E. end land, with which the poet's narraof the island, whence it is but a short tive can be made to accord. Colonel walk to the "School of Homer." Leake further remarks that the traThence the traveller reaches in half-ditional name Polis is one strong an-hour the large village of Stavros argument that the town, of which (Σravpós), i. e. Cross, -as common a the remains are still visible here, name in Greek as in English topo- was that which, Scylax,* and still graphy. If he have taken the pre- more expressly Ptolemy,† mention as caution to send on horses to this place, he may return to the capital easily in 3 hrs. by an excellent bridlepath, which is the only communication by land between the N. and S. of the island. After leaving Bathy, it sweeps round the great harbour, If the Homeric capital of Ithaca crosses the isthmus obliquely, and was at Polis, it will follow that then hangs like a cornice on the Mount Neium, under which it stood side of Mount Neritos, high over (Od., iii. 81), was the mountain of the channel of Cephalonia, command- Exoge at the northern extremity ing glorious views of the opposite of the island, and that one of its island. Some traces of the ancient summits was the hill of Hermes, road may be discerned in this rocky path. Below the village of Stavros are some ancient remains near the little port of Polis on the western coast of the island. Though the fortress and royal residence of the Ithacans may be identified with what is now called the Castle of Ulysses, and though its excellent harbour makes it probable that there was also a town on the site of the modern Bathy, still it seems evident that the Homeric capital was at Polis. For the poet represents the suitors as lying in wait for Telemachus on his return from the Peloponnesus at Asteris, a small island in the channel between Ithaca and Samos,' ," where having borne the same name as the island. We may readily believe that in every age, wóλis, or the city, was among the Ithacans the most common designation of their chief town. from which Eumæus saw the ship of Telemachus entering the harbour (Od., xvi. 471). It becomes probable also that the harbour Reithrum, which was under Neium, but apart from the city (Od., i. 185), may be identified with either of the neighbouring bays of Afales or Frikes. Crocyleia and Ægilips, enumerated by Homer among the subjects of Ulysses (Il., ii. 633), were perhaps towns of Ithaca. The rugged rocks around the modern village of Anoge, scarcely accessible except to goats, lead to the conjecture that it may occupy the site of Ægilips. Strabo, however, is inclined to place Crocyleia and Ægilips in Leucadia; while K. O. Müller is inclined to identify them respectively doubtless is a contraction of Διδασκαλεῖον, and derives its name from having been at some time or other the residence of a monk who acted as a διδάσκαλος. The name of Asteris would seem to imply that the Homeric island was a mere starlike rock. * νῆσος Ιθάκη καὶ πόλις καὶ λιμήν. Scylax in Acarnania. † Ιθάκη, ἐν ᾗ πόλις ὁμώνυμος.-Ptolem. 111, 14. Cf. Leake's Travels in Northern Greece." chap. xxii. |