which, sheltered on its northern side by a succession of high mountain ranges, and deriving a constant supply of warmth from the intensely heated region of the Great African Desert, communicates a corresponding degree of warmth (tempered, however, by the equalising influence of a large body of water) to the countries adjacent to its shores.

(49.) The most important and striking result from these circumstances is the constant diminution of mean annual temperature in proceeding from west to east under similar parallels; and this augmentation of cold in advancing eastward is accompanied by an increase in the extremes of temperature at the opposite seasons of the year. Thus, if we examine the respective climates of Edinburgh, Copenhagen, and Moscow (places under nearly the same parallel), we find the following result:

Similarly, comparing the climates of Christiania and Petersburg, both lying nearly under the 60th parallel, we find that Christiania, the more westerly, has a mean temperature throughout the year of 41-45, and Petersburg of 39-61, while the mean summer and winter temperatures are in the case of the former 59.8 and 23·18, and in that of the latter 61.68 and 18.6. In a more southern latitude, we find, in further illustration of the same fact, that while at Geneva (though situated at an elevation of more than 1200 feet above the sea) the mean temperature of the year is 52·7, and the mean of winter 34, and of summer 70-3; at Odessa (25° further to the eastward) the navigation of the Black Sea is annually interrupted by the frost for a period of six or eight weeks, while the heat of summer is intense; and at Astrakhan (still further eastward under the same parallel) the heats of summer are excessive, and the cold of winter correspondingly severe, the ice at the mouths of the Volga not breaking up until the month of April.

The British Islands, surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, experience in the highest degree the ameliorating influence of

D

its waters upon the temperature of Western Europe, and have a climate in which the extremes of heat and cold are confined within a narrow range, though (from the same circumstance) variations in the condition of the atmosphere are frequent.

(50.) Bearing in mind the modifying influence of the circumstances above noticed, we may divide Europe into four zones or regions, which may be distinguished as the southern, the middle, the northerly, and the arctic zones. In the southern zone, which embraces that portion of Europe lying to the south of the 45th parallel, the mean temperature of the year is generally between 55° and 60°; the winter is short and confined to the rainy season, which usually extends from about October or November to January or February; snow rarely falls in the lower grounds, and vegetation is scarcely impeded by the slight frosts which occur, while the heat of summer, especially during the prevalence of hot southerly winds, is very great, the thermometer sometimes reaching as high as 107°.

The middle or temperate zone, which lies between the 45th and 55th parallels, has in general a mean annual temperature of from 46° to 50°; the season of winter extends from November to March or April, increasing greatly in severity towards the east, while the months between June and September constitute the summer, the extreme heat of which sometimes reaches 90°.

In the northerly zone, between the 55th parallel and the arctic circle, the mean temperature of the year is from 35° to 40°; the heat of summer is for a short time considerable, while the winter increases in severity and length: snow covers the surface of the ground, and ice that of the rivers, for upwards of six months annually. The autumn is generally foggy, and in winter the mercury often freezes. At Stockholm, which from its low and insular situation enjoys a comparatively mild climate, the thermometer often sinks in winter to 28° below zero; and round Tornea, at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, the climate is so rigorous, that the lakes sometimes continue frozen all the year. At Petersburg (lat. 60°) the duration of winter is from the end of September to the beginning of May; snow and ice set in early in October, and continue until May, when they disappear all at once, and a sudden change ensues: on an average, 230 days of the year are reckoned to belong to winter, and during 160 of these the waters are fast bound with ice.

In the arctic zone, beyond the polar circle, the climate is
still more rigorous in winter, and the heat of the short sum-
mer more excessive, — the year in those regions consisting,
in fact, of little more than one long winter night and one
long summer day. In the summer, however, the sky is often
overcast with vapours, which obscure the sun and moderate
its excessive heat, while the darkness of the long night is
relieved by the clear moonlight and the brilliant coruscations
of the aurora.

(51.) The observed mean annual temperature, and also the
mean temperature of the different seasons of the year, at some
of the principal cities of Europe, is as follows:

(52.) In regard to moisture, Europe is subject to greater
variations than any other of the continental divisions of the
globe. The average quantity of rain which falls annually is
greatest in the west and south of Europe, and decreases in
general as we advance northward; while the average number
of days upon which rain falls is greatest in the west, and
decreases in proceeding eastward. In general, more rain
falls annually in the countries situated to the south of the
Alpine barrier of mountains, than in those lying to the north
of their elevated masses; while at the same time the number

of rainy days is greater in the latter. With regard to the periods of the year at which the most considerable quantity of moisture is precipitated, the extreme south of Europe may be designated the province of the winter rains, the Alpine countries and those along the west and north-west coasts constitute the province of the autumn rains, and the central and eastern parts belong to the province of the summer rains.

The greatest annual quantity of rain known to fall in Europe is said to occur in the neighbourhood of Coimbra, in the valley of the Mondego, in Portugal. Norway, owing to its craggy formation, and to the long chain of the Scandinavian Mountains, which arrest the progress of the clouds driven over the Atlantic Ocean, is remarkable for the abundance of its rains. In the high valleys of the Alps, and also in many parts of the hilly districts on the western shores of the British Islands, the quantity of rain is also very great. The amount of rain which falls annually at Naples is 37.4 inches, at Rome 36.3 inches, at Genoa 55 inches, at Pisa 45 inches, at Milan 37 inches, and in the countries south of the Alps it is generally about 35 inches. At Geneva (owing to its great elevation and its proximity to a high mountain region) the quantity is 51-2 inches, at Lyons 33 inches, at Paris 21.26 inches, on the west coasts of France and Holland about 26.7 inches, at London 25 inches, on the east coasts of England in general about 25.5 inches, on the west shores of England about 37.5 inches, in the central parts of Germany about 21.25 inches, at Buda 18 inches, and at Petersburg 17 inches.

The average number of days in the year on which rain falls is greater in Ireland, where it amounts to 208, than in any other country of Europe; and Holland, which has 170 rainy days in the year, ranks second in this respect. In the countries round the Mediterranean Sea, the number of rainy days is very small; at Gibraltar only 68, in the south of France 76, and in Lombardy 96. The coasts of England and France, the north parts of Germany, and the north of Finland, have about 152 days of rain during the year; the interior of France 147, the plateau of Central Germany 141, Poland 158, Petersburg and the plains of the Volga 90.

(53.) The winds which prevail in different parts of Europe vary in their character and influence with the peculiar circumstances of local situation and feature; but it may be

observed as a general fact, that westerly winds, which have blown across the expanse of the Atlantic Ocean, are usually warm, and at the same time accompanied by moisture, while easterly and north-easterly winds, proceeding over immense inland tracts which stretch to a high northern latitude, are for the most part cold and dry.

In the south of Europe, the chief drawback to the generally delightful character of the climate consists in the hot winds which occasionally blow from the south and south-east, and bring with them the intensely heated atmosphere of the desert region of Northern Africa. In Italy and Sicily this species of wind is called the sirocco, under the noxious influence of which vegetation droops and withers, and the human frame is afflicted with languor and dejection. The hot wind which occurs in the south of Spain is called the solano. In the south of France, on the other hand, the mistral-a dry and piercingly cold wind which occasionally blows from the northward, sweeping down the valley of the Rhone-produces effects of an opposite kind, but which are equally dreaded by those exposed to its influences. In the south of Russia, a cold north-easterly wind sometimes prevails, called the mitel, which is often accompanied by snow, drifted with great violence, and is much dreaded.

Finally, it may be observed that the climate of Europe is, on the whole, eminently salubrious, and more conducive to health and longevity than that of any other of the continental divisions of the globe.

SECTION VI. — NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.

(54.) Metals and Minerals.*—These may be best noticed in the order of the natural divisions which have been used in describing the general surface of this continent.

The Balkan system of mountains has only been partially examined in regard to its mineral productions, which appear, however, to be very various. Iron, copper, lead, and silver, all occur in different parts of the provinces that lie along either side of the mountain-chain, and are worked in some localities to a limited extent. Most of the principal metals are known to exist in small quantities in various parts of Greece, though very few of them are now worked; iron is abundant in Euboea and some others of the islands, and coal occurs both in Euboea and in parts of the Morea. The island of Paros, in the Archipelago, is celebrated for its quarries of white marble. Salt is obtained at various places round the shores of the Grecian peninsula and the Ionian Islands. (55.) The central and higher ranges of the Alps are generally deficient in metals; but in the eastern portions of the mountain system, which spread over Styria, Illyria, and the adjacent provinces, various mineral

*In speaking of the natural productions of Europe, we confine ourselves to such as, from their useful qualities or the abundance in which they occur, exercise an important influence upon the industrial pursuits and commercial relations of mankind.