The law of Scotland makes no distinction between the acces- process of the Universe. Opponents of this accidentalism mainsory to any crime and the principal (see ART AND PART). Except | in the case of treason, accession after the fact is not noticed by the law of Scotland, unless as an element of evidence to prove previous accession. :

tain that what seems to be the result of chance is in reality due to a cause or causes which, owing to the lack of imagination, knowledge or scientific instruments, we are unable to detect. In ethics the term is used, like indeterminism, to denote the ACCIAJUOLI, DONATO (1428-1478), Italian scholar, was theory that mental change cannot always be ascribed to born at Florence in 1428. He was famous for his learning, previously ascertained psychological states, and that volition is especially in Greek and mathematics, and for his services to not causally related to the motives involved. An example of his native state. Having previously been entrusted with this theory is the doctrine of the liberum arbitrium indifferentiae several important embassies, he became Gonfalonier of Florence("liberty of indifference "), according to which the choice of in 1473. He died at Milan in 1478, when on his way to Paris to two or more alternative possibilities is affected neither by conask the aid of Louis XI. on behalf of the Florentines against Pope temporaneous data of an ethical or prudential kind nor by Sixtus IV. His body was taken back to Florence, and buried crystallized habit (character). (2) In painting, the term is used in the church of the Carthusians at the public expense, and his for the effect produced by accidental lights (Ruskin, Modern daughters were portioned by his fellow-citizens, the fortune he Painters, I. 11. 4, iii. § 4, 287). (3) In medicine, it stands for left being, owing to his probity and disinterestedness, very small. the hypothesis that disease is only an accidental modification He wrote a Latin translation of some of Plutarch's Lives (Flor- of the healthy condition, and can, therefore, be avoided by ence, 1478); Commentaries on Aristotle's Ethics and Politics; modifying external conditions. and the lives of Hannibal, Scipio and Charlemagne. In the work on Aristotle he had the co-operation of his master Argyropulus. ACCIDENCE (a mis-spelling of "accidents," from the Latin neuter plural accidentia, casual events), the term for the grammatical changes to which words are subject in their inflections as to gender, number, tense and case. It is also used to denote a book containing the first principles of grammar, and so of the rudiments of any subject or art.

ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen), a word of widely variant meanings, usually something fortuitous and unexpected; a happening out of the ordinary course of things. In the law of tort, it is defined as an occurrence which is due neither to design nor to negligence "; in equity, as "such an unforeseen event, misfortune, loss, act or omission, as is not the result of any negligence or misconduct." So, in criminal law, an effect is said to be accidental when the act by which it is caused is not done with the intention of causing it, and when its occurrence as a consequence of such act is not so probable that a person of ordinary prudence ought, under the circumstances, to take reasonable precaution against it " (Stephen, Digest of Criminal Law, art. 210). The word may also have in law the more extended meaning of an unexpected occurrence, whether caused by any one's negligence or not, as in the Fatal Accidents Act 1846, Notice of Accidents Act 1894. See also CONTRACT, CRIMINAL LAW, EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY, INSURANCE, TORT, &c.

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ACCIUS, a Latin poet of the 16th century, to whom is attributed a paraphrase of Aesop's Fables, of which Julius Scaliger speaks with great praise.

ACCIUS, LUCIUS, Roman tragic poet, the son of a freedman, was born at Pisaurum in Umbria, in 170 B.C. The year of his death is unknown, but he must have lived to a great age, since Cicero (Brutus, 28) speaks of having conversed with him on literary matters. He was a prolific writer and enjoyed a very high reputation (Horace, Epistles, ii. 1, 56; Cicero, Pro Plancio, 24). The titles and considerable fragments (about 700 lines) of some fifty plays have been preserved. Most of these were free translations from the Greek, his favourite subjects being the legends of the Trojan war and the house of Pelops. The national history, however, furnished the theme of the Brutus and Decius, -the expulsion of the Tarquins and the self-sacrifice of Publius Decius Mus the younger. The fragments are written in vigorous language and show a lively power of description.

Accius wrote other works of a literary character: Didascalicōn and Pragmaticōn libri, treatises in verse on the history of Greek and Roman poetry, and dramatic art in particular; Parerga and Praxidica (perhaps identical) on agriculture; and an Annales. He also introduced innovations in orthography and grammar.

See Boissier, Le Poète Accius, 1856; L. Müller, De Accii fabulis Disputatio (1890); Ribbeck, Geschichte der römischen Dichtung (1892); editions of the tragic fragments by Ribbeck (1897), of the others by Bährens (1886); Plessis, Poésie latine (1909).

ACCLAMATION (Lat. acclamatio, a shouting at), in deliberative or electoral assemblies, a spontaneous shout of approval or praise. Acclamation is thus the adoption of a resolution or the passing of a vote of confidence or choice unanimously, in direct distinction from a formal ballot or division. In the Roman senate

In logic an accident" is a quality which belongs to a subject but not as part of its essence (in Aristotelian language κаTà ovμßeßηkós, the scholastic per accidens). Essential attributes are necessarily, or causally, connected with the subject, e.g. the sum of the angles of a triangle; accidents are not deducible from the nature, or are not part of the necessary connotation, of the subject, e.g. the area of a triangle. It follows that increased knowledge, e.g. in chemistry, may show that what was opinions were expressed and votes passed by acclamation in thought to be an accident is really an essential attribute, or vice versa. It is very generally held that, in reality, there is no such thing as an accident, inasmuch as complete knowledge would establish a causal connexion for all attributes. An accident is thus merely an unexplained attribute. Accidents have been classed as (1) "inseparable," i.e. universally present, though no causal connexion is established, and (2) "separable," | where the connexion is neither causally explained nor universal. Propositions expressing a relation between a subject and an accident are classed as " accidental," "real" or "ampliative," as opposed to "verbal " or " analytical," which merely express a known connexion, e.g. between a subject and its connotation (g.v.).

ACCIDENTALISM, a term used (1) in philosophy for any system of thought which denies the causal nexus and maintains that events succeed one another haphazard or by chance (not in the mathematical but in the popular sense). In metaphysics, accidentalism denies the doctrine that everything occurs or results from a definite cause. In this connexion it is synonymous with Tychism (rúxŋ, chance), a term used by C. S. Peirce for the theories which make chance an objective factor in the

such forms as Omnes, omnes, Aequum est, Justum est, &c.; and the praises of the emperor were celebrated in certain pre-arranged sentences, which seem to have been chanted by the whole body of senators. In ecclesiastical councils vote by acclamation is very common, the question being usually put in the form, placet or non placet. The Sacred College has sometimes elected popes by acclamation, when the cardinals simultaneously and without any previous consultation "acclaimed " one of their number as pontiff. A further ecclesiastical use of the word is in its application to set forms of praise or thanksgiving in church services, the stereotyped responses of the congregation. In modern parliamentary usage a motion is carried by acclamation when, no amendment being proposed, approval is expressed by shouting such words as Aye or Agreed.

ACCLIMATIZATION, the process of adaptation by which animals and plants are gradually rendered capable of surviving and flourishing in countries remote from their original habitats, or under meteorological conditions different from those which they have usually to endure, and at first injurious to them.

The subject of acclimatization is very little understood, and some writers have even denied that it can ever take place. It

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climates very different from that in which they originally flour-
ished. Thus, the horse and the domestic fowl, both natives of
very warm countries, flourish without special protection in almost
every inhabited portion of the globe. The parrot tribe form
one of the most pre-eminently tropical groups of birds, only a
few species extending into the warmer temperate regions; yet
even the most exclusively tropical genera are by no means
delicate birds as regards climate. In the Annals and Magazine
of Natural History for 1868 (p. 381) is a most interesting account,
by Charles Buxton, of the naturalization of parrots at Northreps
Hall, Norfolk. A considerable number of African and Ama-
zonian parrots, Bengal parroquets, four species of white and rose
crested cockatoos, and two species of crimson lories, remained
at large for many years. Several of these birds bred, and they
almost all lived in the woods the whole year through, refusing
to take shelter in a house constructed for their use. Even when
the thermometer fell 6° below zero, all appeared in good spirits
and vigorous health. Some of these birds have lived thus ex-
posed for many years, enduring the English cold easterly winds,
rain, hail and snow, all through the winter-a marvellous
contrast to the equable equatorial temperature (hardly ever less
than 70°) to which many of them had been accustomed for the
first year or years of their existence. Similarly the recent ex-
perience of zoological gardens, particularly in the case of parrots
and monkeys, shows that, excluding draughts, exposure to
changes of temperature without artificial heat is markedly
beneficial as compared with the older method of strict protection
from cold.

is often confounded with domestication or with naturalization; | from enemies, they often show a wonderful capacity of enduring
but these are both very different phenomena. A domesticated
animal or a cultivated plant need not necessarily be acclimatized;
that is, it need not be capable of enduring the severity of the
seasons without protection. The canary bird is domesticated
but not acclimatized, and many of our most extensively culti-
vated plants are in the same category. A naturalized animal or
plant, on the other hand, must be able to withstand all the
vicissitudes of the seasons in its new home, and it may therefore
be thought that it must have become acclimatized. But in
many, perhaps most cases of naturalization (see Appendix below)
there is no evidence of a gradual adaptation to new conditions
which were at first injurious, and this is essential to the idea
of acclimatization. On the contrary, many species, in a new
country and under somewhat different climatic conditions,
seem to find a more congenial abode than in their native land,
and at once flourish and increase in it to such an extent as
often to exterminate the indigenous inhabitants. Thus L.
Agassiz (in his work on Lake Superior) tells us that the road-
side weeds of the north-eastern United States, to the number
of 130 species, are all European, the native weeds having dis-
appeared westwards; while in New Zealand there are, according
to T. Kirk (Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. ii.
p. 131), no less than 250 species of naturalized plants, more than
100 of which spread widely over the country and often displace
the native vegetation. Among animals, the European rat, goat
and pig are naturalized in New Zealand, where they multiply
to such an extent as to injure and probably exterminate many
native productions. In none of these cases is there any indica-
tion that acclimatization was necessary or ever took place.

On the other hand, the fact that an animal or plant cannot be naturalized is no proof that it is not acclimatized. It has been shown by C. Darwin that, in the case of most animals and plants in a state of nature, the competition of other organisms is a far more efficient agency in limiting their distribution than the mere influence of climate. We have a proof of this in the fact that so few, comparatively, of our perfectly hardy garden plants ever run wild; and even the most persevering attempts to naturalize them usually fail. Alphonse de Candolle (Géographie botanique, p. 798) informs us that several botanists of Paris, Geneva, and especially of Montpellier, have sown the seeds of many hundreds of species of exotic hardy plants, in what appeared to be the most favourable situations, but that in hardly a single case has any one of them become naturalized. Attempts have also been made to naturalize continental insects in Britain, in places where the proper food-plants abound and the conditions seem generally favourable, but in no case do they seem to have succeeded. Even a plant like the potato, so largely cultivated and so perfectly hardy, has not established itself in a wild state in any part of Europe.

Different Degrees of Climatal Adaptation in Animals and Plants.-Plants differ greatly from animals in the closeness of their adaptation to meteorological conditions. Not only will most tropical plants refuse to live in a temperate climate, but many species are seriously injured by removal a few degrees of latitude beyond their natural limits. This is probably due to the fact, established by the experiments of A. C. Becquerel, that plants possess no proper temperature, but are wholly dependent on that of the surrounding medium.

Animals, especially the higher forms, are much less sensitive to change of temperature, as shown by the extensive range from north to south of many species. Thus, the tiger ranges from the equator to northern Asia as far as the river Amur, and to the isothermal of 32° Fahr. The mountain sparrow (Passer montana) is abundant in Java and Singapore in a uniform equatorial climate, and also inhabits Britain and a considerable portion of northern Europe. It is true that most terrestrial animals are restricted to countries not possessing a great range of temperature or very diversified climates, but there is reason to believe that this is due to quite a different set of causes, such as the presence of enemies or deficiency of appropriate food. When supplied with food and partially protected

Hardly any group of Mammalia is more exclusively tropical than the Quadrumana, yet, if other conditions are favourable, some of them can withstand a considerable degree of cold. Semnopithecus schistaceus was found by Captain Hutton at an elevation of 11,000 feet in the Himalayas, leaping actively among fir-trees whose branches were laden with snow-wreaths. In Abyssinia a troop of dog-faced baboons was observed by W. T. Blanford at 9000 feet above the sea. We may therefore conclude that the restriction of the monkey tribe to warm latitudes is probably determined by other causes than temperature alone.

Similar indications are given by the fact of closely allied species, inhabiting very extreme climates. The recently extir.ct Siberian mammoth and woolly rhinoceros were closely allied to species now inhabiting tropical regions exclusively. Wolves and foxes are found alike in the coldest and hottest parts of the earth, as are closely allied species of falcons, owls, sparrows and numerous genera of waders and aquatic birds.

A consideration of these and many analogous facts might induce us to suppose that, among the higher animals at least, there is little constitutional adaptation to climate, and that in their case acclimatization is not required. But there are numerous examples of domestic animals which show that such adaptation does exist in other cases. The yak of Thibet cannot long survive in the plains of India, or even on the hills below a certain altitude; and that this is due to climate, and not to the increased density of the atmosphere, is shown by the fact that the same animal appears to thrive well in Europe, and even breeds there readily. The Newfoundland dog will not live in India, and the Spanish breed of fowls in this country suffer more from frost than most others. When we get lower in the scale the adaptation is often more marked, Snakes, which are so abundant in warm countries, diminish rapidly as we go north, and wholly cease at lat. 62°. Most insects are also very susceptible to cold, and seem to be adapted to very narrow limits of temperature.

From the foregoing facts and observations we may conclude, firstly, that some plants and many animals are not constitutionally adapted to the climate of their native country only, but are capable of enduring and flourishing under a more or less extensive range of temperature and other climatic conditions; and, secondly, that most plants and some animals are, more or less closely, adapted to climates similar to those of their native habitats. In order to domesticate or naturalize the former

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class in countries not extremely differing from that from which | All the stalks which came from it showed ear before the usual

the species was brought, it will not be necessary to acclimatize, in the strict sense of the word. In the case of the latter class, however, acclimatization is a necessary preliminary to naturalization, and in many cases to useful domestication, and we have therefore to inquire whether it is possible.

time, and were ripe in the 6th moon. Each year has multiplied the produce of the preceding, and for thirty years it is this rice which has been served at my table. The grain is elongate and of a reddish colour, but it has a sweet smell and very pleasant taste. It is called Yu-mi, Imperial rice, because it was first cultivated in my gardens. It is the only sort which can ripen north of the great wall, where the winter ends late and begins very early; but in the southern provinces, where the climate is milder and the land more fertile, two harvests a year may be easily obtained, and it is for me a sweet reflection to have procured this advantage for my people." Huc adds his testimony that this kind of rice flourishes in Manchuria, where no other will grow. We have here, therefore, a perfect example of acclimatization by means of a spontaneous constitutional variation.

Acclimatization by Individual Adaptation.—It is evident that acclimatization may occur (if it occurs at all) in two ways, either by modifying the constitution of the individual submitted to the new conditions, or by the production of offspring which may be better adapted to those conditions than their parents. The alteration of the constitution of individuals in this direction is not easy to detect, and its possibility has been denied by many writers. C. Darwin believed, however, that there were indications that it occasionally occurred in plants, where it can be best observed, owing to the circumstance that so many plants are propagated by cuttings or buds, which really continue the That this kind of adaptation may be carried on step by step existence of the same individual almost indefinitely. He ad- to more and more extreme climates is illustrated by the following duced the example of vines taken to the West Indies from examples. Sweet-peas raised in Calcutta from seed imported Madeira, which have been found to succeed better than those from England rarely blossom, and never yield seed; plants from taken directly from France. But in most cases habit, however French seed flower better, but are still sterile; but those raised prolonged, appears to have little effect on the constitution of the from Darjeeling seed (originally imported from England) both individual, and the fact has no doubt led to the opinion that flower and seed profusely. The peach is believed to have been acclimatization is impossible. There is indeed little or no evi- tender, and to have ripened its fruit with difficulty, when first dence to show that any animal to which a new climate is at introduced into Greece; so that (as Darwin observes) in travelling first prejudicial can be so acclimatized by habit that, after sub-northward during two thousand years it must have become jection to it for a few or many seasons, it may live as healthily and with as little care as in its native country; yet we may, on general principles, believe that under proper conditions such an acclimatization would take place.

Acclimatization by Variation.-A mass of evidence exists showing that variations of every conceivable kind occur among the offspring of all plants and animals, and that, in particular, constitutional variations are by no means uncommon. Among cultivated plants, for example, hardier and more tender varieties often arise. The following cases are given by C. Darwin: Among the numerous fruit-trees raised in North America some are well adapted to the climate of the northern States and Canada, while others only succeed well in the southern States. Adaptation of this kind is sometimes very close, so that, for example, few English varieties of wheat will thrive in Scotland. Seed-wheat from India produced a miserable crop when planted by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley on land which would have produced a good crop of English wheat. Conversely, French wheat taken to the West Indies produced only barren spikes, while native wheat by its side yielded an enormous harvest. Tobacco in Sweden, raised from home-grown seed, ripens its seeds a month earlier than plants grown from foreign seed. In Italy, as long as orange trees were propagated by grafts, they were tender; but after many of the trees were destroyed by the severe frosts of 1709 and 1763, plants were raised from seed, and these were found to be hardier and more productive than the former kinds. Where plants are raised from seed in large quantities, varieties always occur differing in constitution, as well as others differing in form or colour; but the former cannot be perceived by us unless marked out by their behaviour under exceptional conditions, as in the following cases. After the severe winter of 1860-1861 it was observed that in a large bed of araucarias some plants stood quite unhurt among numbers killed around them. In C. Darwin's garden two rows of scarlet runners were entirely killed by frost, except three plants, which had not even the tips of their leaves browned. A very excellent example is to be found in Chinese history, according to E. R. Huc, who, in his L' Empire chinois (tom. ii. p. 359), gives the following extract from the Memoirs of the Emperor Khang:-" On the 1st day of the 6th moon I was walking in some fields where rice had been sown to be ready for the harvest in the 9th moon. I observed by chance a stalk of rice which was already in ear. It was higher than all the rest, and was ripe enough to be gathered. I ordered it to be brought to me. The grain was very fine and well grown, which gave me the idea to keep it for a trial, and see if the following year it would preserve its precocity. It did so.

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much hardier. Sir J. Hooker ascertained the average vertical range of flowering plants in the Himalayas to be 4000 ft., while in some cases it extended to 8000 ft. The same species can thus endure a great difference of temperature; but the important fact is, that the individuals have become acclimatized to the altitude at which they grow, so that seeds gathered near the upper limit of the range of a species will be more hardy than those gathered near the lower limit. This was proved by Hooker to be the case with Himalayan conifers and rhododendrons, raised in Britain from seed gathered at different altitudes, Among animals exactly analogous facts occur.

When geese

were first introduced into Bogota they laid few eggs at long. intervals, and few of the young survived. By degrees the fecundity improved, and in about twenty years became equal to what it is in Europe. The same author tells us that, according to Garcilaso, when fowls were first introduced into Peru they were not fertile, whereas now they are as much so as in Europe. C. Darwin adduced the following examples. Merino sheep bred at the Cape of Good Hope have been found far better adapted for India than those imported from England; and while the Chinese variety of the Ailanthus silk-moth is quite hardy, the variety found in Bengal will only flourish in warm latitudes. C. Darwin also called attention to the circumstance that writers of agricultural works generally recommend that animals should be removed from one district to another as little as possible. This advice occurs even in classical and Chinese agricultural books as well as in those of our own day, and proves that the close adaptation of each variety or breed to the country in which it originated has always been recognized.

Constitutional Adaptation often accompanied by External Modification.-Although in some cases no perceptible alteration of form or structure occurs when constitutional adaptation to climate has taken place, in others it is very marked. C. Darwin collected a large number of cases in his Animals and Plants under Domestication.

In his Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection (p. 167),. A. R. Wallace has recorded cases of simultaneous variation among insects, apparently due to climate or other strictly local causes. He found that the butterflies of the family Papilionidae, and some others, became similarly modified in different islands and groups. of islands. Thus, the species inhabiting Sumatra, Java and Borneo are almost always much smaller than the closely allied species of Celebes and the Moluccas; the species or varieties of the small island of Amboyna are larger than the same species or closely allied forms inhabiting the surrounding islands; the species found in Celebes possess a peculiar form of wing, quite