THE

STANDARD FOURTH READER

PART 1.

The letters EI, placed at the end of a word, in this work, refer the reader A
he explanation of that word in the Explanatory Index at the end of the volum

LESSON I.

MARKS AND SIGNS IN READING.

1. PUNCTUATION, from a Latin word (punctum), signifying a point,
Is the art of dividing words and sentences from one another in written
or printed language, so that the reader may comprehend their mean-
ing the more readily and accurately. The Comma (,) usually repre-
sents the shortest pause; the Semi-colon (;), a longer pause than the
comma; the Colon (:), a longer pause than the semi-colon; and the
Period (.), a full stop.

2. The Note of Interrogation (?) is used to denote that a question
is asked; as, Who is there? The Note of Exclamation (!) is express-
Ive of any strong emotion; as, O! heavy day! The Marks of
Parenthesis () are used when a word or passage or mark which
interrupts the progress of the sentence is inserted; as, Honesty (the
proverb is an old one) is the best policy.

-

3. The Dash ( ) is used where a sentence breaks off abruptly;
and sometimes as a substitute for the marks of parenthesis. Brackets
[] include an explanation or name foreign to the text. The Hyphen
(-) is used to separate syllables and the parts of compounded words;
as, watch-ing, fire-engine; and is placed after a syllable ending a line,
to show that the remainder of the word begins the next line.

4. The Apostro-phe ('), a mark differing from the comma only in being placed above the line, denotes the omission of one or more let ters; as o'er for over, 'gan for began. It also marks the separation of the finals of the possessive case from the noun; as, John's hat. The possessive case plural is indicated by an apostrophe after the letter s; as, the trees' leaves.

ΕΙ

5. When a proper name ends in s, the s of the possessive case ought to be expressed in writing, if intended to be pronounced We say Jones's barn, and so it should be written, and not Jones' barn. We say Collins's poems, not Collins' poems; for then a hearer might suppose the name of the poet was Collin. In words where an s immediately follows another s, we often, for the sake of euphony, omit the s of the possessive case in pronouncing, and in such instances it should be omitted in writing. Thus we say and write, Ilyssus banks, in Moses' days, Ulysses' wisdom. Such forms are chiefly used in poetry. In prose it is more usual to say, "The banks of Byssus,' "" In the days of Moses," &c.

6. Marks of Quotation (“”) are used to denote that the words of another person than the author, real or supposed, are quoted. When one quotation is introduced within another, the included one should be preceded by a single inverted comma, and closed by a single apos trophe; thus, (""). Iwo commas (") are used, as in the Table, on page 18, to show that something is understood which was expressed in the line and word immediately above.

7. Marks of Ellipsis (a Greek word signifying an omission) are formed by means of a long dash, or of a succession of points or stars 1*), of various lengths, and which are used to indicate the omission of letters in a word, of words in a sentence, or of sentences in a paragraph; as Q* *** for queen.

8. A Paragraph, sometimes indicated by the sign (T), is a small subdivision in writing, which is now generally represented simply by Leginning a sentence with a new line having a slight blank space at its commencement. Thus this lesson is divided into paragraphs, the number of the present being 8. “See ¶ 20" means See Paragraph Twenty. The sign (T) is sometimes used, like an asterisk, as a mark of reference.

9. The Section (§) denotes the division of a discourse or chapter into interior portions. The Index, or Hand (1), points out a noteworthy passage. The Asterisk (*), the Obelisk or Dagger (†), the Double Dagger (‡), and Parallels (||), are marks of reference to the margin or some other part of a book. The small letters and figures

over words in the present work (the letters EI referring the reader to the Explanatory Index, and the figures to the corresponding numbers of paragraphs in Part I.) are called Superiors by the printers. The reader should make himself familiar with these references, and the information to which they point.

10. The Brace (~~) is used to connect two or more words, to show their relation to a common definition or term. The Caret (1) is used only in writing to point to something interlined above it. The Cedilla is used under the French c, thus (c), to signify that it is to be pronounced soft, like s.

11. The Diæ'resis (・・), a Greek word signifying a division, divides two vowels into two syllables that would otherwise make a diphthong; as, Creätor. It may also be placed over a vowel to show that the vowel commences a new syllable; as, blessid, agëd, learned, though the grave or acute accent is sometimes used for this purpose. In poetry, in the preterites and past participles of verbs, it is often intended that the termination ed should form a distinct syllable, in order to make the measure complete; and in reading the Bible it is customary to make two syllables of the word blessed, and three of the word beloved, &c., though in common speech we make but one, and two.

12. A mark identical with the hyphen (-) is sometimes placed over a vowel to denote that the quantity is long; as in nōte, revōlt, remote, accide. This mark, when thus used, is called by some grammarians a Mák'ron, from a Greek word signifying long. The mark called the Breve (from the Latin brevis, short) is placed over a vowel to indicate that it is short; as in hặt, mět, gět, Helena, pit, not, but crystal.

13. When the Mak'ron is placed over an a, remember that the letter thus marked should be sounded long, as in gave; over an e, long as in theme; over an i, long as in hite; over an o, long as in rūbe; over an u, long and diphthongal (like its name sound in the alphabet) as in mūte, cūbe, tútor (not tootor), student (not stoodent). When the Breve is placed over an a, the letter so marked should be sounded short, as in hut, ăm; over an e, as in pět, forget (not forgu), over an i, as in pin, within; over an o, as in lot, sõlace; over an u es in fun, punch.

14. Accent lays a distinguishing stress on certain syllables of words, as Emphasis does on certain words of a sentence. In the word lis'tant there is an emphasis or stress on the first syllable; in the word serene, on the second. This stress is called Accent. it must

not be confounded with quantity. In the substantive com pact, and the adjective compact, the quantity of the vowels is the same, although the accent of the syllables is different.

15. There are three marks of accent: the mark of the acute accent ('), the mark of the grave accent (`), the mark of the circumflex (^), which is a compound of the other two. The acute accent is used in English to mark the accent'ed syllable. The other accents are employed chiefly in French, and there to denote a difference in the pronunciation, not in the accent. The circumflex accent over e denotes that it should have the long alphabetical sound of a, as in name; thus, fête (pronounced fate).

16. Capital letters should be used in the following instances: At the beginning of the first word of every sentence; of every line of poetry; of every quotation formally introduced; of proper names, and adjectives derived from them; of titles of honor; of the names of Deity, and often of the pronouns he, his and him, when referring to Him. The pronoun I and the interjections O, Ah, &c., must be written in capitals; also the first letter of words to which it is desired to give particular prominence; as, the Revolution, Congress, &c. Italic letters are sometimes used to distinguish certain words or passages. The reader will see several words so distinguished on the present page. In writing, we draw a line under words which we wish to have the printer put in Italic type.

17. Abbreviations are not as much used as they were formerly. It is well always to study precision in the use of words, and consequently we should abbreviate as little as is consistent with convenience. Many a mischievous mistake has been made by trusting to an abbreviation. For a list of the principal abbreviations in use at the present day see the word Abbreviations in the Explanatory Index ai the end of this volume.

QUESTIONS.1. What is the word Punctuation derived from, and what is its meaning Name the principal points. 2. What mark is put at the end of a question? of an excla mation? The use of the marks of parenthesis? 3. The dash? Brackets? The hyphen} 4. The apostrophe? 5. Ought it to be used in the possessive case of proper names ending Ins? 6. What are marks of quotation? Is there any other use to which inverted com mas are put? 7. Marks of ellipsis? The meaning of the word? 8. A paragraph? By what mark signified? 9 A section? Index, or hand? Asterisk? Obelisk, or dagger i Double dagger? Parallels? Superiors? 10. The trace? The caret? The cedilla? 11. The diæresis? May it be used to show that a vowel begins a new syllable? 12. What is a makron ? A breve? 13. Illustrate the use of these marks. 14. What is accent! Does it differ from quantity? 15. The marks of accent? 16. What is said of the use of capital letters? 17. What of abbreviations? Where will you find a list of abbreviations n the present volume?