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longer, and at last agreed to a truce with Saladin, the terms of which were on the whole honorable to the Christians, and creditable to the liberality and tolerance of the Mohammedans.

THE FOURTH CRUSADE. Cause. The desire of getting again possession of Jerusalem, which had been, ever since 1187, in the power of the Ayoubite sultans of Egypt.

Preacher of the Crusade. Fulco of Neuilly.
Duration. About three years, (1202-1204.)

Leaders. Dandolo, doge of Venice, Thiebault of Champagne, Simon of Montfort, Boniface of Montferrat. Baldwin of Flanders, etc.

The march to Constantinople. The crusading armament assembled at Venice. The doge Dandolo exerted himself to persuade the crusaders to turn their arms in the direction of Constantinople before proceeding to the Holy Land. They were the more easily persuaded to do this because hopes were held out that their interference might tend to bring about a reconciliation between the Latin and Greek Churches. They went first to Zara, in Dalmatia, which had revolted from Venice, and from thence to Constantinople, which was finally taken, (1204.)

Result of the Fourth Crusade. The conquest of the Byzantine Empire, of which the crusaders hastened to avail themselves. Baldwin, count of Flanders, was elected to the dignity of Emperor of the East, one-fourth part of the territories of the empire accompanying that dignity. Thus was founded the Latin Empire, which lasted from 1204-1261. The remaining three-fourths (over which Baldwin was feudal sovereign) were divided among the powers who had taken the chief part in the crusade the Venetians taking the greater part, and the French and Italian nobles taking the rest. The only lasting result of this crusade was an enormous extension of Venetian commerce.

THE FIFTH CRUSADE. Three different expeditions bear the name of the Fifth Crusade.

1st. An abortive expedition for the recovery of the Holy Land, by Andrew, king of Hungary, in 1217.

2d. An expedition for the conquest of Damietta in Egypt, by John of Brienne, which was taken, but lost again in 1221.

3d. The crusade of Emperor Frederick II. (See this.) Result of the Crusade of Emperor Frederick II.

After the departure

of Frederick, the Christians in Palestine enjoyed the fruits of his military prowess and wise policy, living in quiet and prosperity in the cities and territories which Frederick had compelled the sultan of Egypt to cede. This prosperity, however, was suddenly put an end to by the violent irruption into Syria and Egypt of a new race of conquerors - the Charismian Turks, from the borders of the Caspian, (1244.) These invaders carried all before them, established themselves in Syria, and burned and pillaged Jerusalem, after defeating the Christian forces. The fruit of the crusades was thus once more lost.

THE SIXTH CRUSADE. Cause. The taking of Jerusalem by the Charismian Turks.

Duration. One year, (1248-1249.)

Leader. Louis IX., king of France. (See ST. LOUIS.)

Theatre of war. The Delta of the Nile. Damietta was taken, but the crusaders were soon afterward defeated at Massourah, where Louis was made prisoner with nearly the whole of his army, by the sultan of Egypt. They were, however, allowed to ransom themselves. This provoked the rage of the body-guard of the sultan, who was murdered. This made an end to the Ayoubite dynasty in Egypt. Result of the Sixth Crusade. After the murder of the sultan, the Mamelukes-Tatar slaves who had served as the sultan's body-guard- appointed their own commander, Ibek, to the Egyptian throne, (1250.) The result of the sixth crusade, therefore, was the establishment of the Mameluke power in Egypt. They ruled Egypt until 1517. Cause. The conquest of

THE SEVENTH AND LAST CRUSADE.

the greater part of the Christian possessions by the Mamelukes. Duration. Hardly one year, (1270.)

Leader. Louis IX., king of France. Theatre' of war. Tunis, where Louis IX. first landed, and where a pestilence carried off himself and the greater part of his army.

Result of the Seventh Crusade. After this defeat, the Pope failed in all his endeavors to excite any enthusiasm for the holy war. One Syrian fortress after the other fell into the hands of the victorious Mussulmans, until at length, and last of all, the dearly won Acre (Ptolemais) was captured, after an obstinate resistance, in 1292, just at the time when Pope Boniface VIII. took the first steps toward his great conflict with Philip the Fair, king of France, which resulted in the deepest humiliation of the Papal power. The system of Gregory VII. declined simultaneously in Europe and in Asia.

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III. To the nobility. The spirit of aristocracy developed itself in the formation of the knightly character.

IV. To the citizens. The growth and prosperity of the cities were promoted by the absence of the nobles.

V. To the peasants. A free peasantry was gradually taking the place of the serfs.

B. CONSEQUENCES TO TRADE, etc. I. To maritime enterprise. The north Italian republics (especially Venice, Genoa, and Pisa,) obtained possession of most of the seaports and islands of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, and of the Black sea, the command of the latter securing to their merchants a monopoly of the northern trade, and a considerable share in that of Asia.

II. To manufactures, etc. The mulberry, as food for silkworms, Indian corn, (Turkey wheat,) and the sugar-cane, were brought before the notice of western agriculturists; new drugs were introduced to the medical practice of Europe by the knowledge acquired of the state of medicine among the Arabs; and it was the same with other arts.

III. The Division of the East at the end of the 13th Century. Before the end of the crusades the caliphate of Bagdad had been destroyed by the Mongolians, (1258,) and the Latin Empire by the Greeks, (1260.) The East was therefore, at the end of the 13th century, divided into three parts:

I. The Anglo-Scotch War.

1. The Mongolian Empire, stretching from China to Russia, and consisting of a miscellany of populations governed by pagan khans.

2. The restored Greek or Byzantine Empire, under Palæologus and his suc

cessors.

3. The Mohammedan nations, governed either by Turks tributary to the Mongol conquerors, or by independent Turkish dynasties. Of these dynasties the most powerful was that of the Mamelukes of Egypt, who successfully disputed Syria with the Mongols. They became masters of Syria, and did not cease their exertions till they had rooted out of that country every vestige of Christian colonization, and expelled the last relics of the crusades, (1291.)

MODERN HISTORY.

I. THE TRANSITION PERIOD.

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Cause. The claim of Edward III. to the throne of France. (See VALOIS IN FRANCE, and GENEALOGY, III.)

Duration. One hundred and fourteen years, (1339-1453.)

Theatre of war. Western Europe, from the mouth of the Schelde, (in Flanders,) to the Ebro, (in Spain.)

Parties. The English and the Flemish against the French.

Object of the war. The union of England and France under the Plantagenets.

Result of the war. Consolidation of France. The Plantagenets lose all their French possessions except Calais.

Periods. 1st period, (1339-1368.) Success of the English. The times of the Black Prince. 2d period, (1368–1380.) Reverses of the English. The times of Du Guesclin. 3d period, (1380-1415.) The exhaustion of both parties. 4th period, (1415-1429) Success of the English. The times of Henry V. and Bedford. 5th period, (1429-1453.) Final expulsion of the English.

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Cause. The claim of Richard, duke of York, to the English crown. (See YORK, and GENEALOGY, I.)

Duration. Thirty years, (1455-1485.)

Theatre of war. England, (north of the Thames.)

Parties. The house of York, or the white roses, and the house of Lancaster, or the red roses.

Object of the war. To place the house of York upon the English throne. At length, after the throne had been uneasily occupied for 24 years by three princes of the house of York-Edward IV., (1461–1483;) Edward V., (1483,) and Richard III., (1483–1485,) — peace was restored to England by the accession of Henry VII. (See BosWORTH FIELD.) Result of the war. Periods.

The extermination of the ancient nobility of England. 1st period, (1455-1460.) The times of York. (See this) 2d period, (1460-1471.) The times of Warwick the king-maker. (See this.) 3d period, (1471– 1485.) The times of Gloucester, (Richard III.)

Great battles. The bloodiest battle of the whole war was the battle of Towton Field, (1461,) in which the Lancastrians were totally defeated, and which gave the crown to the house of York, (Edward IV.) Other battles of this war were: St. Albans, Bloreheath, Northampton, Mortimer's Cross, Barnet, Tewksbury, gained by the Yorkists; Wakefield and Bosworth, gained by the Lancastrians.

IV. The Franco-Italian Wars.

Cause. The claim of Charles VIII., king of France, to the throne of Naples, bequeathed to his father, Louis XI., by Charles of Maine. (See GENEALOGY, VIII.) His successor, Louis XII., had also a claim to Milan as grandson of Valentina Visconti.

Duration. Twenty-three years, (1494-1516.) Theatre of war. The whole of Italy.

Parties. The French against the Spaniards. The different Italian states allied themselves sometimes with the one, sometimes with the other. Object of the war. To bring Italy under French influence.

Result of the war. Italy comes entirely under Spanish influence, and becomes partly even a Spanish province.

Periods. 1st period, (1494–1496.) The expedition of Charles VIII. Conquest and loss of Naples. 2d period, (1499-1500.) The expedition of Louis XII. Conquest of Milan. 3d period, (1501-1504.) Naples entirely lost to France; it becomes a Spanish province. 4th period, (1508-1513.) The times of Julius II. He endeavors to drive both French and Spanish from Italy. 5th period, (1515– 1516.) The expedition of Francis I.

Great battles. Gained by the French: Fornova, (1495;) Novara, (1500;) Agnadello, (1509;) Ravenna, (1512;) Marignano, (1515.) Gained by the Spanish: Garigliano, (1503.)

Great commanders. French: Gaston de Foix and Bayard. Spanish: Consalvo de Cordova.

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Theatre of war. Especially central Italy. Sack of Rome, in 1527, by the imperialists. Object of the war. To break down the power of the emperor. Result of the war. The emperor is more powerful than ever. Parties. The Pope, the Venetians, and Sforza had formed a league against the emperor, with Francis I., then at Cognac. Hence its name, the League of Cognac. Commanders. On the Spanish side: The constable of Bourbon. (a Frenchman;) DIED DURING THE SACK OF ROME; George Frundsberg (a German;) and Andreas Doria, (a Genoese.) On the French side: Lautrec, St. Pol.

Peace. At Cambray, in 1529. It was founded on the treaty of Madrid. Francis was released from his obligation to surrender Burgundy, and on the other hand renounced all his pretensions in Italy, and engaged not to countenance any practices against the emperor either in Italy or Germany. Francis abandoned all his allies, both in Italy and the Netherlands, while Charles did not desert a single one, and obtained a pardon for the constable's family and adherents.

Remark. Thus were virtually terminated the great wars of the French in Italy, which had lasted thirty-six years. In these wars the French had repeatedly displayed a capability of making rapid and brilliant conquests, without the power of retaining them, or turning them to any substantial advantage.

THE THIRD WAR. Cause. The emperor takes possession of Milan on the death of Sforza, in 1535.

Duration. Three years, (1536-1538.)

Theatre of war. Piemont and Provence.

Object of the war. To drive the Spaniards out of Milan, and to obtain possession of Savoy.

Result of the war. The Spaniards retain Milan, but Francis obtains Savoy and part of Piemont. Parties. Francis, in league with Sultan Soliman, against the emperor. Peace. The 10 years truce of Nice, (1538.) Converted soon afterward (1539) into a 66 perpetual peace by the treaty of Toledo. Francis retains Savoy and part of Piemont, Charles the rest of Piemont. Charles promises to invest Francis with Milan.

THE FOURTH WAR. Cause. Charles refuses to invest Francis with Milan.

Duration. Three years, (1542-1544.)

Theatre of war. Northern France, (Picardy and Champagne.)

Object of the war. The division of France between the emperor and Henry VIII. of England.

Result of the war. Every thing remained as before.

Parties. The emperor, in league with Henry VIII. of England. Francis I., in league with the Turks.

Peace. At Crespy, near Laon, (1544.) Each party was to restore the places taken by either since the treaty of Nice. Francis and the emperor should co-operate in restoring the union of the Church; that is, should enter into an alliance against the Protestants, and should defend Christendom against the Turks.

II. RELIGIOUS WARS.

I. Smalcaldian War. The first Religious War of Germany. Cause. The Protestant princes of Germany, with the Saxon elector at their head, had met at Smalcalde, (in Upper Saxony,) and formed a league for the defence of their liberties, (December, 1530.) During the fourteen following years, there had been little interference with the religious liberties of the Germans. But in 1545, the emperor Charles V. prepared to restore Catholicism in Germany by force of arms. He began by calling a diet at Worms, at which resolutions were passed forbidding the dissemination of Anti-Catholic tenets. The Protestant princes, seeing that Charles was now in earnest, renewed their league, and took up arms. Duration. Seven years, (1546–1552.)

Theatre of war. South-western Germany and Saxony.

Object of the war. The annihilation of the political and religious liberties of the members of the German Empire.

Result of the war. The liberties of the members of the empire are placed on a secure basis.

Parties. The emperor, in league with the Pope, against the German Protestants under John Frederick, duke of Saxony, and Philip, landgrave of HesseCassel.

Great battle. The emperor defeats the Protestants at Muhlberg, (1547,) where he captures the two Protestant leaders.

Maurice of Saxony. This victory he owed in part to the treachery of Maurice their kinsman, on whom, as a reward for his conduct, Charles conferred the electorate of Saxony. (His descendants still occupy the Saxon throne.) Ostensibly taking part with the emperor, Maurice still kept up a secret alliance with the Protestants, and so arranged matters that their cause did not become entirely desperate. At length, he threw off the mask, and placed himself at the head of the league. He conducted the war with such consummate skill that, after various reverses, Charles was obliged to submit.

Peace. At Passau, (see this.) This treaty, which placed the religious liberties of Germany on a secure basis, was confirmed by a solemn declaration made at Augsburg, in 1555, and entitled the Peace of Religion.

II. The Cleve Succession.

On the 25th of March, 1609, had died, without issue, John William, duke of Juliers, Cleve, and Berg, count of La Marck and Ravensberg, and lord of Ravenstein. Numerous claimants to this succession arose. The question of this succession derived its chief importance from the circumstance that though Protestantism had spread around them, the dukes of Cleve had always remained firmly attached to the orthodox Church, thus constituting one of the few large Catholic powers among the temporal princes of Germany.

The emperor Rudolf II., evoked the cause before the Aulic Council, as the proper tribunal in all feudal disputes. Before a definitive judgment was pronounced, two of the claimants, the elector of Brandenburg and the count palatine of Neuburg, jointly occupied the Cleve inheritance, and assumed the title of

princes in possession. The elector of Brandenburg, on the death, in 1613, of his brother, the margrave Ernest of Brandenburg, who governed Juliers for both the princes in possession, placed the government of it in the hands of his own son, George William. This arrangement was by no means satisfactory to the count palatine of Neuburg, and his son Wolfgang; and the latter now took a step unexpected even by his father.

The count palatine had consented to the marriage of his son with Magdalen, sister of Maximilian of Bavaria, the head of the Catholic league. In the spring of 1614, Wolfgang occupied Düsseldorf, drove out the officers of the Brandenburg government, and seized as many other places as he could; then he publicly

embraced the Roman Catholic faith.

In order to maintain himself in Düsseldorf, and to gain possession of the whole of the Cleve inheritance, he solicited the emperor to call the Spaniards into Germany. In answer to this request, Spinola marched into Germany and took possession of Juliers and Wesel. But as this was a regular attack on the allies of Holland, Prince Maurice, who was in the neighborhood with a small army, immediately occupied, in the name of the house of Brandenburg, Rees, Emmerich, Kranenburg, and Gennep. Thus a German territory, disputed by German princes, was occupied by the Spaniards for one party, and by the Dutch for the other. The two great parties, each assisted by foreigners, were in array against each other, ready to begin the strife, which was destined to last more than 30 years, and devastate the fairest parts of central Europe. The dispute about the Cleve inheritance was finally terminated, in 1627, by the convention of Düsseldorf, by which the territories of the late duke were equally divided between the two claimants - BRANDENBURG receiving for his share, Cleves and the counties of Mark and Ravensberg, and NEUBURG obtaining Juliers, Berg, and Ravenstein.

III. The Thirty Years War.

General cause. The division of the German Empire into three distinct parties, Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists. These parties were mutually animated with religious hatred, and ready to take arms against each other on the most trifling pretext.

Particular causes. 1. The dissolution of the empire, the result of the spirit of religious faction, (no diet having been convened since 1613.) 2. The unceasing ground of quarrel furnished by the church lands, which Protestants had seized, and which were reclaimed by Catholic princes or prelates. 3. The corrupt and reckless policy of the ministers of Rudolf II. 4. The smouldering hate of half a century kindled by the troubles of Bohemia.

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Immediate cause. The order issued by Emperor Ferdinand to shut up the new churches which the Protestants had erected at Braunau and Klostergrab, produces an outbreak at Prague; the delegates, at the instigation of Count Thurn, the head of the Protestant party in Bohemia, throw Slawata, Martinitz, and Fabricius out of the window of the council chamber in the Hradschin at Prague, (May 23d, 1618.) Under the conduct of Thurn, a regular revolt was

now organized in Bohemia; a revolutionary government was appointed, and steps were taken to form a union with the Protestants of Austria and Hungary. Duration. Thirty years, (1618–1648.)

Theatre of war. Central Europe. It was the first general European war. Character of the war. The great German revolution. Object of the war. The annihilation of the house of Habsburg. Result of the war. The material and political annihilation of Germany. Parties. A. Catholics: The emperor, the Liga, Spain, Belgium, Italy, and Poland. B. Protestants: The evangelical states of Germany, Holland, England, Denmark, and Sweden. In 1632, Catholic France joins the Protestants, and thus changes the character of the war, (from a religious to a political war.) Division. 1. The Bohemian-Palatine period, (1618-1623.) 2. The Danish period, (1625-1629.) 3. The Swedish period, (1630-1635.) 4. The French period, (1634-1648.)

First Division. The Bohemian-Palatine Period. Cause. The Bohemians renounced their allegiance to Ferdinand II., and conferred the crown of Bohemia on Frederick V., elector palatine, son-in-law of James I of England. Frederick V. was at that time the leading Protestant prince in Germany. He ruled one winter in Bohemia, 1619-20; hence his name, the Winterking. Frederick's army is utterly routed on the White mountain, near Prague, (Nov. 8th, 1620.) Frederick's flight to Holland. He is placed under the ban of the empire. All his states are confiscated.

Duration. Nearly six years. (1618-1623.)

Theatre of war. Western Germany.

Object of the war. The restoration of Frederick V. to his paternal inheritance, (the palatinate.)

Result of the war. Devastation of western Germany. Frederick a fugitive. The Catholics victorious. The vacant electorate was conferred on Maximilian of Bavaria, whose appointment gave the Catholics a majority in the electoral college. Great commanders. Catholic: Maximilian of Bavaria, Tilly, Spinola. Protestant: Mansfeld, Baden-Durlach, Christian of Brunswick.

Decisive battles. Hochst, (1622;) Stadt Lohn, (1623;) both gained by the Catholics.

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Cause. The election of Christian IV., king of Denmark, as chief of the circle of Lower Saxony. He declares his determination to put an end to the quartering of troops and other burdens, with which some of the states belonging to that circle were oppressed, contrary to the peace of religion and the laws of the empire.

Duration. About five years, (1625–1629.)

Theatre of war. Northern Germany.

Object of the war. To restore the Winterking (Frederick V.) to his states. Result of the war. Devastation of northern Germany. The Catholics vic

torious.

Protestant: Mans

Great commanders. Catholic: Tilly and WALLENSTEIN. feld, and Christian of Brunswick. Decisive battles. Catholic victories at the bridge of Dessau, and near Lutter on the Bärenberg.

Peace. In order to prevent a junction of the Swedes and Danes, a peace was concluded at Lubeck, (1629,) between the emperor and the king of Denmark, on terms exceedingly favorable to the latter, who received back all the territories of which he had been deprived by Wallenstein and Tilly, on pledging himself never to become a party to any confederacy against the emperor.

Result of the Conquest of Northern Germany.

The emperor, elated with his victory, began a crusade against the Protestants of Germany, beginning with those of Bohemia. Many of the leading men of Bohemia were executed; hundreds of Bohemian families were exiled; and the Catholic worship was restored in the Bohemian territory. The emperor's designs, however, extended beyond Bohemia. He aimed at the reduction of all the German princes to the same position as the nobles of other countries; and, as a step to the accomplishment of this, he ordered the restoration of all the church lands that had been seized by laymen subsequently to the treaty of Passau. Even the Catholics, many of whom had shared in the distribution of the church lands, resisted this decree, and began to be alarmed at the immense power which the house of Austria was assuming in the empire, under the pretence of zeal for the restoration of the Catholic Church. It was, however, carried into effect with great severity by Wallenstein. But the discontent excited by his proceedings was expressed by the estates of the empire so loudly and unequivocally as to compel the emperor to dismiss Wallenstein from his service, (September, 1630.)

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Result of the war. Germany becomes the general battle-field of Europe. The thorough devastation of Germany.

Great commanders. Imperialists: Tilly, Wallenstein, Piccolomini, Gallas. Anti-imperialists: GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, Bernhard of Weimar, Horn.

Decisive battles. Gained by the Imperialists: Nordlingen, (1634.) Gained by the Anti-imperialists: Breitenfeld, (1631;) Lützen, (1632.)

Peace. At Prague, (1635.) In order to oppose the Swedish and French troops, the emperor was obliged to make separate terms with the German Protestants. By the terms of this peace, the operation of the Restitution Edict was deferred for 40 years.

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