climax of civilization, art, and conquest which is recorded on its monuments. Except the Pyramids, all other Egyptian monuments were erected immediately after the expulsion of the Hyksos. From that time date the vast temples, with their obelisks and sphinxes, the huge colossal statues,

Iconoclasts, The, (740 a. D.,) the destroyers of images. The 8th century gave birth to a religious contest, in its nature and in its important political consequences entirely different from all those which had hitherto distracted Christendom. Iconoclasm was an attempt of the Eastern emperor to change by his own arbitrary command the religion of his subjects. It swept away from almost all the churches of the empire objects hallowed by devotion, objects of hope and fear, of gratitude and immemorial veneration. The consequences of this new religious dissension were of the utmost political importance, both in the East and in the West. But its more important results were the total disruption of the bond between the East and the West; the severance of the Italian province from the Byzantine empire; the great accession of power to the papacy, which took the lead in this revolution; the introduction of the Frankish kings into the politics of Italy; and eventually the establishment of the Western empire under Charlemagne.

Iconoclasts, The, (1566 B. C.) The anti-Catholic movement was spreading about this time in the Netherlands. The churches in and about St. Omer, Ypres, and other places were broken into, and the images and ornaments destroyed or defaced; like scenes took place in the cathedral of Antwerp. The disturbances spread into Holland, Utrecht, Friesland - everywhere, in short, except a few places in the southern provinces; in less than a fortnight 400 churches were sacked in Flanders alone. This proved to be the prelude to the rebellion of Holland against Spain, which finally ended in the establishment of the Dutch republic.

Ina, (?-728,) King of the West Saxons, a valiant prince and an able legislator, succeeded Ceadwalla, in 688. Having obtained advantages over the people of Kent, in 694, he wrested Somersetshire and other parts of the

and the paintings of life on the tombs of Thebes. From this period, too, the Greeks derived those traditions of Egyptian prowess which they personified in the conqueror Sesostris.

west of England from the Britons. He afterward made war upon the Mercians; but the latter part of his reign was spent in works of peace; and having resigned his crown in 728, he went to Rome, founded an AngloSaxon colony or school, and died there the same year. Ina's school at Rome was further endowed with the Romescot, by Offa of Mercia, about 794, and disappears from history in the 10th century. The laws of Ina served as the foundation of those of Alfred, and some of them are still extant. Independence of Chili. See CHILI,

He

Innocent III., (1161-1216,) one of the most eminent of the Popes. succeeded Celestine III. in 1198, and being endowed by nature with all the talents of a ruler, he was better qualified than any of his predecessors to extend the papal power. His first care was to recover and secure such portions of the domains of the Holy See as were in the hands of usurpers. He applied himself earnestly to the improvement of the administration of justice in his estates, and, with his high notions of papal supremacy, he expected that all great questions, civil as well as ecclesiastical, should be decided by himself. He sought to unite the Christian princes in a crusade for the recovery of Palestine, and shortly afterward he began a cruel persecution of the Albigenses. He had put France under an interdict, because Philip Augustus divorced his queen, Ingeburga; and when John, king of England, refused to confirm the election of Stephen Langton as archbishop of Canterbury, Innocent laid the kingdom under an interdict, and, in 1212, formally deposed John, and instigated the king of France to attack England. John was finally obliged to submit, resigned his territories to Rome, and received them as a papal fief from Innocent, from whom he was unable to obtain absolution until he had paid large sums of money. In 1210 the Pope excommunicated the emperor Otto IV., who owed to him his eleva

tion. Innocent abolished the Roman senate and consulate, and thus made himself absolute in his estates, which now extended from the Adriatic to the Mediterranean. Almost all Christendom was now subject to the Pope; two crusades were undertaken at his order, and his influence extended even to Constantinople. He enforced purity of morals in the clergy, and was himself irreproachable in private life.

Isaiah, (about 700 B. C.) The name signifies Salvation of Jahu, (a shortened form of Jehovah.) The greater number of the prophets, in bold denunciations, full of wrath and anguish, but never abandoning all hope, lamented, threatened, and chastised the crimes and follies of the falling monarchy of Samaria. But it was Isaiah, in Jerusalem, who took the loftiest flight, and surveyed all the evils that were springing up in the surrounding states, in the corruption of their manners and their laws, and which afforded cause for alarm to them and to their people, to his own and to all future times. As he lived at that epoch when the spirit of conquest began to rage more extensively and with greater violence, his work is a precursor of all the complaints which have been uttered to the present day against this evil and its devastations, and a general prophecy of the calamities that have befallen the world in consequence of such disorders. One single assurance supports him amid present afflictions, viz., the conviction that the germ of true religion and pure morality, which for thousands of years had been preserved in Israel, would obtain at length a champion, who, although through suffering, should find the way to victory. Little as it became a Roman to doubt of the fortunes of the eternal Rome, far less could a descendant of those Hebrews who had often experienced such wonderful deliverances, who had been saved by Moses, by Othniel, Ehud, Barak, Gideon, Jephthah, Samson,

Isocrates, (436-338 B. C.) To Isocrates Athenian eloquence is most deeply indebted. He was the founder of the most flourishing school of rhetoric, and numbered the most distinguished orators (Æschines, Demosthenes, etc.,) among his pupils. He was naturally timid and of a weakly constitution, for which reasons he abstained from taking any direct part in the political affairs of his country, and resolved to contribute toward the development of eloquence, by teaching and writing, and thus to guide others in the path for which his own constitution unfitted him. Isocrates has the great merit of being the first who clearly saw the value and objects of oratory, in its practical application to public life and the affairs of the state. At the same time he endeavored to base public oratory upon sound moral principles, and thus to rescue it from the influence of the Sophists.

Issus, Battle of, (333 B. C.) The gulf of Issus forms the most northeast point of the Mediterranean. Near the head of this gulf Alexander defeated the Persian army under Darius; 100,000 Persians fell, and their king escaped with difficulty. The rich camp of the Persians, with the magnificent royal tent, the mother, wife, two daughters, and a son of Darius, fell into the hands of the conqueror, who treated the prisoners with his accustomed clemency.

J.

Esdraelon, and is continued throughout the whole of Samaria and Judæa, quite to the southern extremity of the Promised Land. It is almost equidistant from the Mediterranean and from the river Jordan, being about 30 miles from each, and situated at an elevation of 2,000-feet above the level of the Mediterranean. The particulars of the siege by Titus are

fully detailed by Josephus. It occupied nearly 100,000 men, little short of five months, having been commenced on the 14th of April, and terminated with the capture and conflagration of the Upper City on the 8th of September. This is to be accounted for by the fact that, not only did each of the three walls, but also the fortress and the temple, require to be taken in detail, so that the operations involved five distinct sieges. This memorable siege has been thought worthy of special mention by Tacitus, and his lively abridgment of Josephus must have served to raise his countrymen's ideas both of the military prowess and of the powers of endurance of the Jews.

Jerusalem, Kingdom of, (1099-1291 A. D.) The result of the first Crusade was the establishment of the kingdom of Jerusalem, of which Godfrey of Bouillon was the first king. This kingdom of Jerusalem had no easy task, surrounded as it was by powerful and naturally implacable foes: the danger from the east was especially great, in case any leader of eminence should arise among the vigorous and warlike Seljukes, reconcile the dissentient emirs, and then break into the country with a united force. The early kings of Jerusalem, especially Baldwin II., had a vivid conception of this danger. If all the Christians had shared the ideas of their kings, their plans for consolidating the kingdom would in all probability have been carried out, and perhaps a lasting foundation of European power and civilization would have been laid in those lands. The heroes who shook their lances so gallantly in Christ's honor were quite incapable of understanding the political motives and consequences of their undertaking. Instead of striving to frame their society according to religious principles, and then allowing politics to obey political rules, and war military ones, they started upon the supposition that the very existence of their dominion was a wonder of God's own working; and they were convinced that for every fresh danger which threatened it, God had a new miracle in store. They were soon to discover that such a notion was as destructive to religion and morality as to political and warlike success. The result was that it did not last a century, and that under the eighth king, (Guy of Lusignan,) Jerusalem was taken by Saladin, (October 2d, 1187.) Since that time the crown of Jerusalem conveyed only an empty title. (See CRUSADES, Appendix, page 196.)

Joan of Arc, (1412-1431.) In the autumn of 1428, the English army threatened Orleans, the most important of the towns still remaining faithful to the Dauphin: they had made themselves masters of the bridge and the outworks, notwithstanding the bravery of the garrison. Lastly, the defeat of the French and Scotch at the battle of the Herrings appeared to give the finishing stroke to the fall of that town, and to inflict a mortal wound upon the cause of Charles. The news of this distress reached, at last, a peaceful valley of Lorraine. There a girl listened to the news with panting breast. She left her native hamlet of Domremy for Vaucouleurs, where she so importuned the governor, Baudricourt, that he sent her on to Charles at Chinon. After some hesitation, Charles accepted her proffered service, and she was accordingly intrusted with the important duty of throwing provisions into the town of Orleans. She succeeded. The tide of fortune from this moment turned. The siege of Orleans was raised, and the Dauphin, advancing to Rheims, was crowned king of France, under the title of Charles VII. After the coronation, Joan declared that her mission was at an end, and that she should now retire to private life; but the French commander, Dunois, who thought she might still prove serviceable, induced her to throw herself into Compiègne. Here, after performing prodigies of valor, she was taken prisoner in a sally; and, after four months of imprisonment, was cruelly condemned by the English to be burnt alive on the charge of sorcery. She resolutely defended herself from the absurd accusation, but was carried to the stake, where with dauntless courage she met her fate, in the 29th year of her age, May 30th, 1431. The story of the Maid is told with great freshness in "The Life and Death of Jeanne d'Arc," by Harriet Parr, (1866.) John de Witt. See DE WITT.

Jugurtha, King of Numidia, was the son of Manastabal and grandson of Masinissa. Micipsa, his uncle, left him the kingdom jointly with his own sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal. On the death of Micipsa, B. C. 118, Jugurtha aimed at the sole power, put Hiempsal to death, and made war on Adherbal, who, however, by the aid of the Romans, recovered his dominions. He finally lost them, and was killed by his rival in 112. Jugurtha was now the sole ruler of Numidia. He was a man of superior talents, and was remarkable for strength and personal beauty. Formed for a soldier, his valor and

conduct had won for him in early youth the esteem of the Roman army and the friendship of Scipio; but, for his intrigues and crimes, the Romans now made war on him. Their generals, however, took bribes, and failed to subdue him, till Sulla persuaded Bocchus, king of Mauritania, to draw Jugurtha into his power, and deliver him up to the Romans. He was accordingly seized, and conducted to Rome, were he was thrown into a dark prison and starved to death.

Julianus, surnamed "The Apostate," (331-363,) Roman Emperor, was the youngest son of Constantius, brother of Constantine the Great. He was educated in the tenets of Christianity, but returned to paganism. In 354 he was declared Cæsar, and sent to Gaul, where he obtained several victories over the Germans, and, in 361, the troops in Gaul revolted from Constantius, and declared for Julian. During the lifetime of his cousin Constantius, he had made profession of the orthodox faith; but, on succeeding to the throne, he threw off all disguise, reopened the heathen temples, and sought to restore the heathen worship in all its splendor, while he labored, both by his pen and his authority, to destroy Christianity. He took from the Christian churches their riches, and divided them among his soldiers. He sought likewise to induce the Christians, by flattery or by favor, to embrace paganism; but failing in the attempt, he shut up their schools, prohibited them from teaching grammar and rhetoric, and published an edict that the name of Christian should be abolished. His malice was further evinced by extraordinary indulgence to the Jews, and by an attempt

Kant, Emmanuel, (1724-1804,) the great founder of the critical philosophy. He was appointed professor in the university of Königsberg, in 1770. For a long time his studies were chiefly of physical science, astronomy, mechanics, etc., and among his early works are "Thoughts on the True Valuation of Vital Forces," "General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens," "Theory of the Winds," etc. It was.not till 1781 that he published his "Critical Inquiry into the Nature of Pure Reason," which contains the system commonly known under the title of the "Critical

to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem, that the prophecy of Christ might be falsified; but it is said that flames of fire rose from beneath, and consumed some of the workmen, by which miraculous interposition the design was frustrated.

Justinian I., the Great, (483-565,) the great Emperor of the East, was the nephew of Justinus I. He shared the fortunes of his uncle, who, born a Thracian peasant, was raised to the imperial throne; and at whose death, in 527, he obtained the exclusive sovereignty. During his reign the pristine glory of the imperial arms was restored by his great general Belisarius. The event, however, which has rendered the reign of Justinian most memorable, is the reformation of the Roman jurisprudence. He commissioned Tribonian to revise the existing laws, to purge the errors and contradictions, and to select the wise and salutary enactments. To this code Justinian added the "Pandects," the Institutions, and the Novellæ, since called collectively the body of civil law, (corpus juris civilis.) Justinian died after a reign of 38 years, and in the 83d year of his age. Juvenal, (80 A. D.,) a Roman poet and satirist. He may be said to have been the last of the Roman poets, and as the bold and unflinching castigator of vice he stands without a rival. Good as are his intentions, however, and forcible as are his denunciations, the moral indelicacy of the age in which he lived renders these powerful satires too gross in their details for readers of the present day. English translations have been made by Dryden, Gifford, and others.

Philosophy." A second part of it, published in 1783, bore the title of "Prolegomena for Future Metaphysics." Kant was a man of high intellectual endowments; and was no less distinguished by a profound love of truth and a pure moral sentiment; and his “Critical Philosophy" for a time superseded every other in the Protestant universities of Germany. Dissatisfied both with the dogmatism and the doubt which in his day disputed the field of philosophy, he sought a new path and a higher end. His method was fundamentally an investigation of the faculty of knowledge

in man, and he carefully distinguished that part of knowledge which answers truly to objects (the objective) from that which merely pertains to the thinking mind or subject (the subjective.) His system was met by vigorous opposition, but over all hinderances it held its way, and the whole course of human thought has been modified by it. "The 'Critical Philosophy," says Carlyle, "has been regarded by persons of approved judgment as distinctly the greatest intellectual achievement of the century in which it came to light. Schlegel has stated in plain terms his belief that, in respect to its probable influence on the moral culture of Europe, it stands on a line with the Reformation. The noble system of morality, the purer theology, the lofty views of man's nature derived from it," have influenced for good the whole spiritual character of Germany and of Europe. Kaunitz, (1711-1794,) one of the most remarkable statesmen of the 18th century, and the greatest minister that Austria ever possessed. After a careful education, completed by foreign travel, he entered the service of Charles VI., and, after the death of that emperor, was employed by Maria Theresa in various missions, in the discharge of which his abilities procured for him her entire confidence. His success was, perhaps, in no small degree owing to the singular combination of qualities in his character. Under the easy exterior of a man of the world were concealed acute penetration, deep reflection, impenetrable reserve, indomitable perseverance. Even his bitter adversary, Frederick II., was forced to acknowledge the depth and power of his intellect. The energies of this remarkable man were directed, during 40 years, to one object-the aggrandizement of the house of Austria.

Kempis, Thomas à, (1380-1471,) reputed author of the famous book “De Imitatione Christi." He entered the monastery of Mount St. Agnes, of which his brother was prior, and, being a good copyist, was chiefly engaged

Lactantius, an eminent father of the Church. By his "Symposium" he obtained such renown that Diocletian appointed him public teacher of rhetoric. He wrote many works in vindication of Christianity, from the

in making copies of the Bible and religious treatises. In a collection of his beautiful manuscripts was the "Imitation of Christ," which was afterward attributed to him as author. The "Imitation" is the most universally translated book in the world next to the Bible. Its various editions and translations amounted, in 1828, to more than two thousand. Its singular charm and power are confessed by thoughtful men of all sects, who hear in it, says a recent critic, "the voice of human nature struggling in its weakness, its disappointments, and its consciousness of a capacity for a life that shall be a real life and not a fever, when the cage is broken and the veil is rent asunder." It is distinguished from too many religious books by its clearness, honesty, simplicity, and freedom from exaggeration and morbidities. Klopstock, Friederich Gottlieb, (1724-1803,) a celebrated German poet. After receiving a liberal education at his native place, he was sent to study theology at Jena, and there wrote a great part of his "Messiah," which he published in 1748. Though this poem underwent the ordeal of severe criticism, it was admired by the majority. Klopstock was invited into Switzerland, and while there the people regarded him with a kind of veneration. Thence he was attracted to Copenhagen by flattering promises, which were amply fulfilled. In 1771 he went to reside at Hamburg as Danish ambassador, and counsellor from the court of Baden. Klopstock was, perhaps, most successful as a lyrical writer. His patriotism is strong and ardent; and his later odes, called forth by the French Revolution, in which at first he took the warmest interest, are distinguished by bold and original turns of expression. His tragedies were not calculated for the stage; and his greatest work, "The Messiah," did not fulfil the expectations of his countrymen, who predicted that it would eclipse the Paradise Lost of Milton. Like Milton's great work, it is said to be more commonly praised than read.

style of which he has been honored with the name of the Christian Cicero. His principal work is the "Institutiones Divinæ," in 7 books. Died, probably, about 325.