presence of the whole British army, which was advantageously posted for a pitched battle. The victory was hotly contested on both sides, but midnight left the Americans in possession of the field. This battle of Lundy's Lane was one of the most hotly contested actions ever fought in the New World. Three thousand Americans, and 4,500 British took part in it. The former lost 743 in killed and wounded; the latter, 878.

Luther, Martin, (1483-1546.) He was destined by his father for the legal profession; but the impression produced upon him by the fate of his friend Alexis, who was struck dead by lightning while walking by his side on the road from Mansfeld to Erfurt, uniting with the effect of his early religious education, induced him to devote himself to the monastic life. He entered the monastery of the Augustines in 1505, and was, two years afterward, ordained priest. In 1508 he was made professor of philosophy in the new university of Wittenberg, in which position his powerful mind soon showed itself: he threw off the fetters of the scholastic philosophy, and attracted a large number of pupils. His profound learning, together with the fame of his eloquence, soon made Luther known to the principal scholars of the age. Great therefore was the attention excited by his ninety-five propositions, affixed to the church of Wittenberg castle, October 31st, 1517, and intended to put an end to the sale of indulgences by the Dominican Tetzel. They were condemned as heretical, and burnt; but neither menaces nor persuasions could induce him to recant. Being called to defend himself, he presented himself at the diet of Worms, April, 1521, before the empe

Macchiavelli, Nicolo, (1469-1527,) for many years secretary of the republic of Florence, and justly celebrated for his political and historical writings. When he had scarcely completed his 29th year, he was appointed secretary to the general government. His ordinary occupation comprehended the political correspondence and the redaction of treaties with foreign states. But the Florentine government, justly appreciating his talents, were not long in extending his functions, and he was in consequence successively intrusted with no less than 23 foreign legations.

M.

ror and a vast assemblage of the princes and prelates of Germany. He there made an elaborate defence, and concluded with these words: "Let me then be refuted and convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures, or by the clearest arguments: otherwise I cannot and will not recant; for it is neither safe nor expedient to act against conscience. Here I take my stand; I can do no otherwise, so help me God! Amen." Leaving Worms, the elector of Saxony conveyed him to the castle of Wartburg. Here Luther remained ten months, spending his days in laborious studies, and then returned to Wittenberg, where he published a sharp reply to Henry VIII., who had written a book against him, on the seven sacraments. In 1529 the emperor assembled another diet at Spire, to check the progress of the new opinions; and there it was that the name Protestants first arose, protest being made, on the part of the electoral princes, who supported the Reformation, against the rigorous impositions brought forward in this assembly. After this, the protesting princes determined to have a common confession of faith drawn up, which was accordingly prepared by Melancthon, and, being presented at the diet of Augsburg, in 1530, was called "The Confession of Augsburg." In 1534, Luther's translation of the whole Bible was published. At length, worn out more by labor than by age, Luther died at his native place, February 18th, 1546. His works are very numerous. In them he revived the Augustinian theory of the annihilation of liberty, and immolated free-will to grace and man to God. From his well-known “Table-Talk,” Michelet extracted the substance of his very interesting "Life of Luther."

Several writings of the Florentine secretary are regarded as estimable productions of a superior mind; others are considered as pernicious and containing abominable doctrines. But of all his works, that which has excited the greatest attention is the celebrated treatise entitled "Il Principe." This production, in which the ferocious Borgia is presented as a model to sovereigns who wish to govern absolutely, has acquired a deplorable reputation in Europe, and made the author himself be regarded by many as an incarnation of the evil principle.

Macedonian War, (200 B. c.) See Appendix, page 188.

Magellan, or Magelhaens, Ferdinand, (?-1521,) a celebrated Portuguese navigator, who, in 1509, discovered and passed the straits which have since been called by his name. His services not being valued by his own country, he offered them to Charles V. of Spain, who intrusted him with a fleet destined to attempt a westward passage to the Moluccas; hence his discovery. He was slain in 1521, in a skirmish with the natives of one of the Philippine Islands.

Mandeville, Sir John de, (?-1372), the earliest writer of English prose whose work survives. He left his native country in 1327; spent 34 years in visiting the Holy Land, Egypt, India, and China; and on his return, published an account of his travels, in Latin, which was afterward translated by himself into French, and thence into English. His work, full of most interesting details, freely interspersed with all sorts of wonderful and incredible tales, earned him an extraordinary reputation among his contemporaries, and was soon spread over Europe in various transla

tions.

Manfred, (1233-1266,) Regent and afterward King of Sicily, was a natural son of the emperor Frederick II. and a noble Lombard lady, and was born about 1235. His father gave him the title of prince of Tarentum, and at his death, in 1250, named him regent of Sicily during the absence of the heir to the throne, (Conrad.) He quelled the revolts stirred up in Apulia by Pope Innocent IV., the bitter enemy of his father, and on the death of Conrad, in 1254, again became regent during the infancy of Conradino. Another general revolt broke out, but in the course of the two following years Manfred recovered his power; and, in 1258, on a report of the death of Conradino, he had himself crowned king of Palermo. He would not resign the crown on learning that the young prince was still living, but promised to leave it to him at his death. Manfred was excommunicated by Alexander IV., and by his successor, Urban IV.; the latter then offering the crown of Sicily to various princes. It was accepted by Charles of Anjou, and the Pope proclaimed a crusade against Manfred. Charles was crowned king at Rome in January, 1266, and immediately invaded Naples; the decisive battle was fought near Benevento, and Man

fred, through the treachery of his Apulian troops, was defeated and killed, February 26th.

Marathon. In 490 B. C., Darius, king of Persia, sent his generals Dates and Artaphernes with the first of those prodigious armies with which the East has so often from that time overwhelmed the West. They sailed to Euboea with an enormous fleet, took Erebria by treachery, and having crossed the channel into Attica, drew up their forces, which amounted to 100,000 men, on the plain of Marathon. This is a small plain in the northeastern part of Attica, somewhat in the form of a half-moon, the inner curve of which is bounded by the bay, and the outer by a range of mountains, through which two narrow passes led to Athens. These passes were covered by the Athenians. For nine days the armies stood opposite one another. Before the expiration of these nine days, the Persians had relinquished the plan of forcing the passes, and on the tenth day the flect was already manned and the cavalry already on board. Then it was that Miltiades, who that day (September 12th, 490,) held the supreme command, ordered the Athenians to advance against the troops that were drawn up by the shore to cover the embarkation. The hosts of the great king were driven before the armed townsmen of Athens. They had no place whither to retreat and where they might form in order. They were driven into the morasses and there slain in numbers. The first great turning-point in the rise of the Athenian people is the day of Marathon. Nothing ever yet said of that day has exaggerated its immense importance to Greece and to the world.

Marcus Aurelius. See AURELIUS.

Marius, Caius, (B. c. 157-86,) a celebrated Roman general and popular leader, who was seven times consul. He first distinguished himself at the siege of Numantia; was tribune of the people B. C. 119; and ten years afterward went to Africa as lieutenant to the consul Metellus; superseded his commander, and obtained the consulship himself, after the subjugation of Jugurtha. When Italy was threatened soon after by the Cimbri and Teutones, Marius was chosen consul as the man most capable of successfully resisting them. The danger was, however, postponed for several years, and when, in B. C. 102, the conflict took place, Marius defeated, and,

indeed, destroyed the host of the Teutones at Aquæ Sextiæ, in Gaul, and with Catulus, in the following year, as completely overthrew the Cimbri, near Vercellæ. The conquerors shared the triumph, and Marius was called the third founder of Rome. In B. C. 90, he took part in the Social War, and his jealousy of Sulla began. Two years later Sulla was charged to conduct the war against Mithridates, but Marius succeeded in getting the command transferred to himself. At once Sulla marched to Rome with his army, and a civil war commenced to decide their superiority. Marius fled, wandered about on the coasts of Italy, and, after several escapes, was found by some horsemen in a marsh. He was conducted naked to Minturnæ, where the magistrate, after some deliberation, resolved to obey the orders of the senate and of Sulla. But the Cimbrian slave to whom the execution was intrusted, awed by the look and words of Marius, dropped his sword, and the people of Minturnæ, moved with compassion, conducted him to the coast, whence a vessel conveyed him to Africa. He landed at Carthage; but his party once more triumphing in Italy, he was recalled by Cinna and Sertorius, who making themselves masters of Rome, a terrible proscription took place. Marius enjoyed the dignity of consul for the seventh time, B. C. 86, and died shortly after, aged 70.

Marlborough, John Churchill, (1650-1722,) Duke of. After receiving a defective education, he was placed, at the age of 12, as page in the household of the duke of York. His passion for the life of a soldier was not long in showing itself, and from 1672–7, he served in the auxiliary force sent by Charles II. to Louis XIV., and so greatly distinguished himself that Turenne predicted his future eminence, and Louis XIV. gave him the highest praise at the head of the army. At the Revolution of 1688 he entered the service of the prince of Orange, and was created earl of Marlborough. On the breaking out of the war of the Spanish Succession in 1700, he received the chief command of the forces in the United Provinces, and was named ambassador to France. Marlborough was now to enter upon that career of military achievement which not only established his reputation as a general, but had most important results in the political state of Europe, especially in the destruction of the formidable preponderance of French power. As commander-in-chief of the allied forces he took several places in the Netherlands in 1702; with the Imperialists under Prince

Eugène, gained the famous victory of Blenheim in 1704, for which the thanks of parliament were voted to him, and the manor of Woodstock conferred on him; defeated Marshal Villeroi at Ramillies in 1706, and closed the brilliant series of his victories by those of Oudenarde in 1708, and Malplaquet in 1709. A national thanksgiving was appointed for the latter victory. But a reverse of fortune was at hand. The popular discontent occasioned by heavy taxation, the belief that the war was prolonged chiefly by Marlborough's influence, and for selfish ends, and the increasing power of the Tory party, led to his dismissal from all his offices at the beginning of 1712. An unfavorable report had been given by the commission appointed to examine the charge of peculation brought against him, and, to escape the disquietude of a life at home, he went abroad with his duchess, who had also been displaced at court. Returning in 1714, George I. restored him to his offices, but he was soon after compelled by an attack of apoplexy to withdraw from public life, and he died at Windsor Lodge in 1722. The character of Marlborough presents a perplexing combination of noble and base qualities, which have served as the groundwork of extravagant eulogy and fierce invective His rare ability as a general, his skill and success as a diplomatist, are unquestionable. No less so are his vast ambition, his avarice, and his treachery. There are numerous memoirs of Marlborough and his campaigns.

Marsic War, (90 B. C.) See Appendix, page 189.

Martialis, (43-?,) a celebrated Roman poet, was born in Spain, A. D. 43. At the age of 23 he went to Rome, where his talents soon gained him distinction. He enjoyed the favor of the emperor Domitian, who loaded him with honors, which he repaid with the most prodigal flattery and servility. Among the friends of Martial were Pliny the younger, Quintilian, Juvenal, and other literary men. After 35 years' residence at Rome, he returned at the close of 100 to Bilbilis, where he lived on the estate of his wife, Marcella. His works consist of fourteen books of short metrical compositions, entitled "Epigrammata," distinguished for their wit, exquisite diction, but also, in many instances, for their indelicacy. Mary Stuart. See STUART, MARY. Marquis of Worcester.

236072

See WORCESTER.

Massacre of Vassy. See VASSY.

Maurice of Saxony. See Appendix, page 200.

Mazarin, Jules, (1602–1661 a. D.,) Cardinal and prime-minister of France during the minority and first years of Louis XIV. During his minority the government was administered avowedly by his mother, Anne of Austria, but, in reality by Cardinal Mazarin; a man who, though in every point inferior to Richelieu, had imbibed something of his spirit, and who, so far as he was able, adopted the policy of that great statesman, to whom he owed his promotion. But the circumstance for which the administration of Mazarin is most remarkable is the breaking out of that great civil war called the Fronde, in which the people attempted to carry into politics the insubordinate spirit which had already displayed itself in literature and religion. Here we cannot fail to note the similarity between this struggle, and that which at the same time was taking place in England. In both countries there now first arose that great product of civilization, a free press, which showed its liberty by pouring forth those fearless and innumerable works which mark the activity of the age. In both countries the struggle was between retrogression and progress; between those who clung to tradition and those who longed for innovation; while in both the contest assumed the external form of a war between king and parliament, the king being the organ of the past, the parliament being the representative of the present. There was one other point of vast importance in which these two great events coincide; this is, that both arose from the desire of securing civil liberty. France was indebted to Mazarin for the advantages she derived from the peace of Westphalia and that of the Pyrenees; and it is impossible to deny the possession of great talents to him who signed these treaties, who twice governed France from the depths of his exile, and preserved the supreme authority to the close of his life, under such a prince as Louis XIV., and with such men as Cardinal de Retz and the Great Condé for his opponents. A better diplomatist than administrator, and full of contempt for the people, Mazarin enriched himself without scruple at its expense, did nothing for the internal prosperity of the state, and left France without credit and almost ruined. Miss Freer's "Regency of Anne of Austria" gives a good account of Mazarin's administration.

Memphis was the first capital of the entire kingdom of Egypt. It stood on the western bank of the Nile, lat. 30° 6' N. Only 15 miles from the bifurcation of the Nile at Cercassorus, it commanded the south entrance to the Delta, while it was nearer to the Thebaid than any of the Deltic provincial cities of importance, Heliopolis, Bubastis, and Tais. It is also clear why its founder placed it on the western bank of the Nile. His kingdom had little to apprehend from the tribes of the Libyan Desert; whereas the eastern frontier of Egpyt was always exposed to attack from Arabia, Assyria, and Persia, nor indeed was it beyond the reach of the Scythians. It was important, therefore, to make the Nile a barrier of the city; and this was effected by placing Memphis west of it. Before, however, Menes could lay the foundations of his capital, an artificial area was to be provided for them. The Nile, at that remote period, seems to have had a double bifurcation; one at the head of the Delta, the other above the site of Memphis, and parallel with the Fayoum. Of the branches of its southern fork, the western and wider of the two ran at the foot of the Libyan hills; the eastern and lower was the present main stream. Between them the plain, though resting on a limestone basis, was covered with marshes, caused by their periodical overflow. This plain Menes chose for the area of Memphis. He began by constructing an embankment that diverted the main body of the water into the eastern arm; and the marshes he drained off into two principal lakes, one to the north, the other to the west of Memphis, which thus, on every side but the south, was defended by water.

Messina, Battle of, (1676 A. D.) Messina is situated in the northeastern part of Sicily, on the strait of Messina, here about two miles wide. The inhabitants of Messina, exasperated by the oppressions of the Spanish government, had revolted in the summer of 1674, and invoked the aid of France, which was accorded by Louis XIV. The French made great efforts to retain so important a position as the straits of Messina; they defeated all the attempts of the Spaniards to regain possession of that city, and even extended their occupation in its neighborhood. At length, toward the end of December, 1675, a Dutch fleet under De Ruyter arrived to the assistance of their allies the Spaniards, and a desperate but indecisive action took place, January 8th, near Messina, between the Hispano

Dutch fleet and the French under Duquesne. On the 22d of April, 1676, another engagement was fought near Catania with the same result, except that the death of the gallant De Ruyter might be considered equivalent to a victory. A cannon-ball carried away the left foot and shattered the right leg of the veteran admiral, as he was giving his orders on the quarterdeck. He died of his wounds a few days after at Syracuse. In a third naval action off Palermo, June 2d, the French gained a complete victory; they now remained masters of the seas, and the allied fleet was compelled to take refuge at Naples.

Metternich, Clement, (1773-1859,) Prince, one of the most eminent statesmen of modern times. His abilities soon attracted notice. After the peace of Presburg, he was appointed ambassador at Paris, in 1806; and in that delicate situation, though representing a vanquished monarch, he succeeded in conciliating all who came in contact with him, by the urbanity of his manners and the skill with which he maintained his difficult and important position. In 1809 he was appointed chancellor of state, and for nearly 40 years he exercised the highest authority in the Austrian empire. One of his first aims was to bring about a marriage between Napoleon and an Austrian archduchess, as a means of purchasing a respite for the empire. But this expedient of a humiliating sacrifice could not be permanent; and in 1813, after the great French disasters in Russia, war was again declared against France, and from that moment Metternich became the soul of all the steps that were taken to make an end to the dominion of Napoleon. He was successful, and in 1815 he presided over the congress of Vienna, which had been assembled for the purpose of dividing the immense spoils of Napoleon and reorganizing Europe. The maintaining of the articles of the congress of Vienna formed henceforth the chief business of Metternich. For this purpose he cruelly repressed every aspiration of the people after civil, political, or religious liberty. In 1848 he was compelled to flee from Vienna; but he returned in 1851, and, though he never again assumed office, his counsels are said to have swayed the emperor down to the moment of his death.

Mexican War. See Appendix, page 219.

Michael Angelo Buonarotti, (1474-1564,) the great Italian painter, sculptor, architect, and poet. His passion for drawing showed itself at a very

early age, and attracted the notice of Lorenzo de Medici, who employed him in his palace. He soon after went to Rome, whither his renown as sculptor of the "Sleeping Cupid" had preceded him. He there executed his famous Pieta. For the next 30 years he lived mostly at Florence, but was frequently called to Rome. About 1506 he drew his plan for St. Peter's. He was the first who was able to imagine the colossal in a colossal manner, and in this way he devised the dome of St. Peter's. We need only compare San Gallo's model with his to feel where the difference lies. San Gallo raised tower above tower, increased, added one thing to another, and thus brought together a great but divisible mass. The small, however, does not become colossal by making it double or threefold; magnitude must belong to the form when it is devised. In this spirit Michael Angelo made his plan. He arranged every proportion according to the extent of the whole work. He was one of the greatest artists of that great period of art, the 16th century. He was also a poet, and the few poems he has left show what heights he could have reached. As in his face, so in the whole man and his deeds, are visible a vast power, with calmness and sadness. He was greatly loved and greatly feared. He died at Rome, and was buried at Florence. An excellent Life of Michael Angelo has been written by Grimm.

Miltiades, a celebrated Athenian general, hero of Marathon, was the youngest son of Cimon, and succeeded his brother, Stesagoras, about B. C. 515, as tyrant of the Chersonese. He took part in the invasion of Scythia by Darius, held his government of the Chersonese at least 22 years, and retired to Athens in 493. On occasion of the second Persian invasion of Greece, under Datis and Artaphernes, 490, Miltiades was chosen one of the ten generals, and signalized himself by the great victory over the Persians on the field of Marathon. Having persuaded the Athenians to give him the command of a fleet, he used it for private ends in an attack on Paros. The attack failed, Miltiades was severely wounded, and on his return to Athens was prosecuted and imprisoned for deceiving the people. His death took place in prison soon after.

Milton, John, (1608-1674,) the great English poet. His father gave him a careful education, which was continued at St. Paul's school and the university of Cambridge, where he distinguished himself by the excellence of