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hears the warbling of birds, and the purling of streams; but, upon the finishing of some secret spell, the fantastic scene breaks up, and the disconsolate knight finds himself on a barren heath, or in a solitary desert. It is not improbable, that something like this may be the state of the soul after its first separation, in respect of the images it will receive from matter.' No. 413, Spectator.

Having thus explained, at sufficient length, the origin, the nature, and the effects of tropes, I should proceed next to the several kinds and divisions of them. But, in treating of these, were I to follow the common tract of the scholastic writers on rhetoric, I should soon become tedious, and, I apprehend, useless at the same time. Their great business has been, with a most patient and frivolous industry, to branch them out under a vast number of divisions, according to all the several modes in which a word may be carried from its literal meaning, into one that is figurative, without doing any more; as if the mere knowledge of the names and classes of all the tropes that can be formed, could be of any advantage towards the proper, or graceful use of language. All that I purpose is, to give, in a few words, before finishing this lecture, a general view of the several sources whence the tropical meaning of words is derived: after which I shall, in subsequent lectures, descend to a more particular consideration of some of the most considerable figures of speech, and such as are in most frequent use; by treating of which, I shall give all the instruction I can, concerning the proper employment of figurative language, and point out the errors and abuses which are apt to be committed in this part of style.

All tropes, as I before observed, are founded on the relation which one object bears to another; in virtue of which, the name of the one can be substituted instead of the name of the other, and by such a substitution, the vivacity of the idea is commonly meant to be increased. These relations, some more, some less intimate, may all give rise to tropes. One of the first and most obvious relations, is that between a cause and its effect. Hence,in figurative language, the cause is sometimes put for the effect. Thus, Mr. Addison, writing of Italy:

Blossoms, and fruits, and flowers, together rise,

And the whole year in gay confusion lies.

Where the whole year' is plainly intended, to signify the effects or productions of all the seasons of the year. At other times, again, the effect is put for the cause; as, ' gray hairs' frequently for old age, which causes gray hairs; and 'shade,' for trees that produce the shade. The relation between the container and the thing contained, is also so intimate and obvious, as naturally to give rise to tropes:

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Spumantem pateram et pleno se proluit auro. Where every one sees, that the cup and the gold are put for the liquor that was contained in the golden cup. In the same manner, the name of any country is often used to denote the inhabitants of that country; and Heaven, very often employed to signify God, be

cause he is conceived as dwelling in Heaven. To implore the assistance of Heaven, is the same as to implore the assistance of God. The relation betwixt any established sign and the thing signified, is a further source of tropes. Hence,

Cedant arma toga; concedat laurea linguæ.

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The 'toga,' being the badge of the civil professions, and the 'laurel' of military honours, the badge of each is put for the civil and military characters themselves. To assume the sceptre,' is a common phrase for entering on royal authority. To tropes, founded on these several relations, of cause and effect, container and contained, sign and thing signified, is given the name of Metonymy.

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When the trope is founded on the relation between an antecedent and a consequent, or what goes before, and immediately follows, it is then called a Metalepsis; as in the Roman phrase of Fuit,' or 'Vixit,' to express that one was dead. 'Fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Dardanidum,' signifies, that the glory of Troy is now no more.

When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; the singular for the plural, or the plural for the singular number; in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object meant; the figure is then called a Synecdoche. It is very common, for instance, to describe a whole object by some remarkable part of it; as when we say, 'a flect of so many sail,' in the place of 'ships;' when we use the 'head' for the 'person,' the 'pole' for the 'earth,' the 'waves' for the 'sea.' In like manner, an attribute may be put for a subject; as, 'youth and beauty,' for 'the young and beautiful;' and sometimes a subject for its attribute. But it is needless to insist longer on this enumeration, which serves little purpose. I have said enough, to give an opening into that great variety of relations between objects, by means of which, the mind is assisted to pass easily from one to another; and understands, by the name of the one, the other to be meant. It is always some accessory idea, which recalls the principal to the imagination; and commonly recalls it with more force, than if the principal idea had been expressed.

The relation which is far the most fruitful of tropes I have not yet mentioned; that is, the relation of similitude and resemblance. On this is founded what is called the metaphor; when, in place of using the proper name of any object, we employ, in its place, the name of some other which is like it; which is a sort of picture of it, and which thereby awakens the conception of it with more force or grace. This figure is more frequent than all the rest put together; and the language, both of prose and verse, owes to it much of its elegance and grace. This, therefore, deserves very full and particular consideration; and shall be the subject of the next lecture.

QUESTIONS.

HAVING finished what related to the | Of the figure and of the dress, what is construction of sentences, to what does observed; and what follows? Hence, our author proceed? What was the ge- how are several of the most affecting neral division of the qualities of style; passages of the best authors, expressand which has been considered? How ed? Of the following sentiment from far has ornament, also, been treated of? Virgil, what is observed? What is he What is another, and a great branch of describing? Repeat the passage; and figurative language? What must be of it, what is observed? Of the simple our first inquiry? What do they always style of scripture, what is here observed; imply? What instances are given to and what remark follows? Where is illustrate this remark? But, though the proper region of these ornaments; figures imply a deviation from the most and there, when only do they contrisimple forms of speech, what are we bute to the embellishment of discourse? not thence to conclude? How far is Having premised these observations, to this from being the case; and what is what does our author proceed? At the impossible? What does this fact show? first rise of language, how would men What evidence have we that they are begin in giving names to objects; and not the invention of schools? What re- of this nomenclature, what is observed? mark follows? What, then, is it, which According to what, would their stock has drawn the attention of critics and of words increase? But, of the inaderhetoricians so much to them? To this, quacy of language, here, what is obwhat do they owe; and how is this il- served? How did men seek to obviate lustrated? How are they compared this difficulty; and what example is with simple expressions? Hence, what given? In progress of time, how was follows? How may figures, in general, the word in employed; and here, what be described? From what will the just-do we see? Where do tropes of this ness of this description appear? How kind abound; and to what are they do rhetoricians commonly divide them? owing? How are the operations of the What are figures of words commonly mind, and affections in particular, in called; and in what do they consist? most languages, described; and for To illustrate this, what instance is what reason? What did they therefore given? In what does the trope consist? | borrow; and what examples have we? What do figures of thought suppose? But, although the barrenness of lanAs in what cases? Why is not this dis-guage, and the want of words, be one tinction of great use? What is of little cause of the invention of tropes, yet, importance, provided we remember what does not follow? From what, what? What, perhaps, might be a more then, have they arisen? With what is useful distribution of the subject? With-every object, that makes an impression out insisting on any artificial division, on the mind, constantly accompanied ? what may be useful? The first of these How does it never present itself to our general observations, is concerning view? By this means, what does every what? What is here admitted? What idea, or object, carry in its train; and dictates the use of figures; and what how do these often strike the imagiillustration is given? What, however, nation? Of them, what is farther obwill not follow thence; and why? Of served? As the imagination is more practice, and method and rule, what is disposed to rest upon them, what folobserved? With what, do we every lows? Hence, what has been the conday meet; yet, what has been found of sequence? How is this remark illusimportance? Of propriety and beauty trated; and what example is given? of speech, what is observed? In the On the sentence, the leader of a facnext place, what must be observed?tion, and on the word voice, what is obWhat has often led persons to imagine, served? From what allusion, particuthat if their composition was well larly, does this usage take place? bespangled with these ornaments of With what does the account now speech, it wanted no other beauty? given, coincide? Repeat the passage. Hence, what has arisen; and why? From what has been said, what clear

relation between the container, and the thing contained, what is observed? What instances are given? Of the relation between a sign, and the thing signified, what is observed? To what tropes is the name Metonomy given? When is a trope called a Metalepsis ? When is the figure called a Synecdoche? How is this illustrated? To give an opening of what, has enough been said? It is always an idea of what kind; and with what force does it recall the principal idea to the imagination? What relation is far the most fruitful in tropes? On it, what is founded; and what is observed of it? Of this figure, what is farther remarked?

ly appears? What concur in producing | language is found. Of Mr. Addison, this effect, at the beginnings of society; what is here remarked? What instance and why? To what are the savage is mentioned? Repeat the passage. tribes of men always much given; and Having thus explained the origin, the what, consequently, is the effect of nature, and the effect of tropes, to what every new object? By what are they does our author next proceed? 'In treatgoverned; and what follows? Of what ing of these, what would be the effect language do we find this to be the cha- of following the scholastic writers on racter? Of the style of an Indian chief's rhetoric? What has been their great harangue, what is observed? In the business? What does our author proadvancement of language towards re- pose? On what are all tropes, as was finement, why are perspicuity and before observed, founded; and in virtue precision more studied? But still, what of which, what can be done? What is must continue to occupy a considerable one of the first and most obvious of place? In every language, what do we these relations; and hence, what folfind? In this case, are what terms? lows? What instance is given? Here, Of those words which remain in a sort for what is the whole year plainly inof middle state, what is observed? tended? Repeat the instance in which What phrases are given as examples? the effect is put for the cause? Of the In the use of such phrases, what will correct writers always preserve? How is this illustrated? Where are such attentions requisite? On what, does what has been said on this subject tend to throw light; and to what will it lead ? What is the first reason; and how does this appear? In the second place, what is their effect? To what does the familiarity of common words tend; and how is this illustrated? Where is assistance of this kind often needed; and where is it essential? Hence, what do figures form; and how is this illustrated? In the third place, what peculiar pleasure do figures give us? What do we see; and why? To illustrate this, what instance is given? At the same moment, what have we before us? In the fourth place, with what further advantages are figures attended? Of this advantage, what is observed; and for what reason? To illustrate this remark, what sentence is introduced from Burke ? On this sentence, what is remarked? How is the same principle illustrated from Dr. Young? What is the effect of such an image as is here introduced? Besides, by figures, what effect can we produce? When we want to render an object beautiful or magnificent, what course do we pursue; and what effect is thereby produced? In what lines of Dr. Akenside is this effect of figures happily touched? To what, does what has been explained, naturally lead? Repeat the remarks here introduced on the present state of perfection, in which

Figures.

ANALYSIS.

1. Introductory remarks.

2. Origin and nature of figures.
3. Language most figurative in its
early state.

4. The advantages of figures.
A. They enrich language.

B. They bestow dignity upon style.
c. They present two objects to our
view at the same time.
D. They render our views more
distinct.

5. The different kinds of figures.
A. Metonomy.
B. Metalepsis.
c. Synecdoche.

LECTURE XV.

METAPHOR.

AFTER the preliminary observations I have made, relating to figurative language in general, I come now to treat separately of such figures of speech, as occur most frequently, and require particular attention; and I begin with metaphor. This is a figure founded entirely on the resemblance which one object bears to another. Hence, it is much allied to simile, or comparison, and is indeed no other than a comparison expressed in an abridged form. When I say of some great minister, 'that he upholds the state, like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice,' I fairly make a comparison; but when I say of such a minister that he is the pillar of the state,' it is now become a metaphor. The comparison betwixt the minister and a pillar, is made in the mind; but is expressed without any of the words that denote comparison. The comparison is only insinuated, not expressed: the one object is supposed to be so like the other, that, without formally drawing the comparison, the name of the one may be put in the place of the name of the other. The minister is the pillar of the state.' This, therefore, is a more lively and animated manner of expressing the resemblances which imagination traces among objects. There is nothing which delights the fancy more, than this act of comparing things together, discovering resemblances between them, and describing them by their likeness. The mind thus employed, is exercised without being fatigued; and is gratified with the consciousness of its own ingenuity. We need not be surprised, therefore, at finding all language tinctured strongly with metaphor. It insinuates itself even into familiar conversation; and unsought, rises up of its own accord in the mind. The very words which I have casually employed in describing this, are a proof of what I say; tinctured, insinuates, rises up, are all of them metaphorical expressions, borrowed from some resemblance which fancy forms between sensible objects, and the internal operations of the mind; and yet the terms are no less clear, and perhaps, more expressive, than if words had been used which were to be taken in the strict and literal sense.

Though all metaphor imports comparison, and therefore is, in that respect, a figure of thought; yet, as the words in a metaphor are not taken literally, but changed from their proper to a figurative sense, the metaphor is commonly ranked among tropes or figures of words. But provided the nature of it be well understood, it signifies very little whether we call it a figure or a trope. I have confined it to the expression of resemblance between two objects. I must remark, however, that the word metaphor is sometimes used in a looser and more extended sense; for the application of a term in any figurative signification, whether the figure be founded on resem

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