fall upon contrivance and design? The only reflection perhaps which arises in our minds from this view of the world around us is, that the laws of nature every where prevail; that they are uniform and universal. But what

do we mean by the laws of nature, or by any law? Effects are produced by power, not by laws. A law cannot execute itself. A law refers us to an agent. Now an agency so ge. neral, as that we cannot discover its absence, or assign the place in which some effect of its continued energy is not found, may, in popular language at least, and, perhaps, without much deviation from philosophical strictness, be called universal: and, with not quite the same, but with no inconsiderable propriety, the person, or Being, in whom that power resides, or from whom it is derived, may be taken to be omnipresent. He who upholds all things by his power, may be said to be every where present.

This is called a virtual presence. There is also what metaphysicians denominate an essential ubiquity: and which idea the language of Scripture seems to favour: but the former, I think, goes as far as natural theology carries

CHAPTER XXV.

OF THE UNITY OF THE DEITY.

Or the "Unity of the Deity," the proof is, the uniformity of plan observable in the uni verse. The universe itself is a system; each part either depending upon other parts, or being connected with other parts by some common law of motion, or by the presence of some common substance. One principle of gravitation causes a stone to drop towards the earth, and the moon to wheel round it. One law of attraction carries all the different planets about the sun. This philosophers demonstrate. There are also other points of agreement amongst them, which may be considered as marks of the indentity of their origin, and of their intelligent Author. In all are found the conveniency and stability derived from gravitation. They all experience vicissitudes of days and nights, and changes of season. They all, at least Jupiter, Mars, and Venus, have the same "Eternity" is a negative idea, clothed with advantages from their atmosphere as we have. a positive name. It supposes, in that to which In all the planets, the axes of rotation are perit is applied, a present existence; and is the manent. Nothing is more probable than that negation of a beginning or an end of that exis- the same attracting influence, acting according As applied to the Deity, it has not to the same rule, reaches to the fixed stars: been controverted by those who acknowledge but, if this be only probable, another thing is a Deity at all. Most assuredly, there never was certain, viz. that the same element of light a time in which nothing existed, because that does. The light from a fixed star affects our condition must have continued. The universal eyes in the same manner, is refracted and reblank must have remained: nothing could rise flected according to the same laws, as the light up out of it; nothing could ever have existed of a candle. The velocity of the light of the since; nothing could exist now. In strict-fixed stars is also the same as the velocity of ness, however, we have no concern with dura- the light of the sun, reflected from the satel tion prior to that of the visible world. Upon lites of Jupiter. The heat of the sun, in kind, this article therefore of theology, it is sufficient to know, that the contriver necessarily existed before the contrivance.

us.

tence.

"Self-existence" is another negative idea, viz. the negation of a preceding cause, as of a progenitor, a maker, an author, a creator. "Necessary existence" means demonstrable existence.

"Spirituality" expresses an idea, made up of a negative part, and of a positive part. The negative part consists in the exclusion of some of the known properties of matter, especially of solidity, of the vis inertia, and of gravitation. The positive part comprises perception, thought, will, power, action, by which last term is meant, the origination of motion; the quality, perhaps, in which resides the essential superiority of spirit over matter, "which cannot move, unless it he moved; and cannot but move, when impelled by another. " I apprehend that there can be no difficulty in applying to the Deity both parts of this idea.

Bishop Wilkin's Principies of Natural Religion, p. 106,

differs nothing from the heat of a coal fire.

In our own globe, the case is clearer. New countries are continually discovered, but the old laws of nature are always found in them: new plants, perhaps, or animals, but always in company with plants and animals which we already know; and always possessing many of the same general properties. We never get amongst such original, or totally different, modes of existence, as to indicate, that we are come into the province of a different Creator, or under the direction of a different will. In truth, the same order of things attends us, wherever we go. The elements act upon one another, electricity operates, the tides rise and fall, the magnetic needle elects its position, in one region of the earth and sea, as well as in another. One atmosphere invests all parts of the globe, and connects all; one sun illuminates, one moon exerts its specific attraction upon all parts. If there be a variety in natural effects, as e. g. in the tides of different seas, that very variety is the result of the same cause, acting under different cir.

Findlay's proof from

"natural kinds.

cumstances. In many cases this is proved;tations of form) confesses an imitation, a rein all, is probable.

membrance, a carrying on, of the same plan. The observations here made, are equally applicable to plants; but, I think, unnecessary to be pursued. It is a very striking circumstance, and alone sufficient to prove all which we contend for, that, in this part likewise of organized nature, we perceive a continuation of the sexual system.

Certain however it is, that the whole argument for the divine unity, goes no farther than

The inspection and comparison of living forms, add to this argument examples without number Of all large terrestrial animals, the structure is very much alike; their senses nearly the same; their natural functions and passions nearly the same; their viscera nearly the same, both in substance, shape, and office: digestion, nutrition, circulation, secretion, go on, in a similar manner, in all: the great circulating fluid is the same; for, I think, no to a unity of counsel. difference has been discovered in the properties of blood, from whatever animal it be drawn. The experiment of transfusion proves, that the blood of one animal will serve for another. The skeletons also of the larger terrestrial animals, show particular varieties, but still under a great general affinity. The resemblance is somewhat less, yet sufficiently evident, between quadrupeds and birds. They are all alike in five respects, for one in which they differ.

It may likewise be acknowledged, that no arguments which we are in possession of, exclude the ministry of subordinate agents. If such there be, they act under a presiding, a controlling will; because they act according to certain general restrictions, by certain common rules, and, as it should seem, upon a general plan: but still such agents, and different ranks, and classes, and degrees of them, may be employed.

CHAPTER XXVI.

OF THE GOODNESS OF THE DEITY.

The proof of the divine goodness rests upon two propositions: each, as we contend, capa. ble of being made out by observations drawn from the appearances of nature.

In fish, which belong to another department, as it were, of nature, the points of comparison become fewer. But we never lose sight of our analogy, e. g. we still meet with a stomach, a liver, a spine; with bile and blood; with teeth; with eyes (which eyes are only slightly varied from our own, and which variation, in truth, demonstrates, not an interruption, but a continuance of the same exquisite plan; for it is the adaptation of the organ to the element, viz. to the different refraction of light passing into the eye out of a denser medium.) The provinces, also, themselves of water and earth, are connected by the species of animals which in. habit both; and also by a large tribe of aquatic animals, which closely resemble the terres-ed trial in their internal structure; I mean the cetaceous tribe, which have hot blood, respiring lungs, bowels, and other essential parts, like those of land-animals. This similitude, surely, bespeaks the same creation and the same Creator.

The first is," that in a vast plurality of in stances in which contrivance is perceived, the design of the contrivance is beneficial.”

The second." that the Deity has superadd. pleasure to animal sensations, beyond what was necessary for any other purpose, or when the purpose, so far as it was necessary, might have been effected by the operation of pain."

First, "in a vast plurality of instances in which contrivance is perceived, the design of the contrivance is beneficial."

Insects and shell-fish appear to me to differ No productions of nature display contrivance from other classes of animals the most widely so manifestly as the parts of animals; and the of any. Yet even here, beside many points parts of animals have all of them, I believe, a of particular resemblance, there exists a gene-real, and, with very few exceptions, all of ral relation of a peculiar kind. It is the re- them a known and intelligible, subserviency lation of inversion; the law of contrariety; to the use of the animal. Now, when the mul namely, that, whereas, in other animals, the titude of animals is considered, the number of bones, to which the muscles are attached, lie parts in each, their figure and fitness, the fawithin the body; in insects and shell-fish, they culties depending upon them, the variety of lie on the outside of it. The shell of a lobster species, the complexity of structure, the sucperforms to the animal the office of a bone, by cess, in so many cases, and felicity of the refurnishing to the tendons that fixed basis or sult, we can never reflect, without the proimmoveable fulcrum, without which, mechani- foundest adoration, upon the character of that cally, they could not act. The crust of an in- Being from whom all these things have prosect is its shell, and answers the like purpose. ceeded; we cannot help acknowledging, what The shell also of an oyster stands in the place an exertion of benevolence creation was; of a of a bone; the bases of the muscles being fix-benevolence how minute in its care, how vast ed to it, in the same manner as, in other ani- in its comprehension.

mals, they are fixed to the bones. All which When we appeal to the parts and faculties (under wonderful varieties, indeed, and adap- of animals, and to the limbs and senses of ani

mals in particular, we state, I conceive, the
proper medium of proof for the conclusion which
we wish to establish. I will not say, that the
insensible parts of nature are made solely for
the sensitive parts: but this I say, that, when
we consider the benevolence of the Deity, we
can only consider it in relation to sensitive be-
ing. Without this reference, or referred to
any thing else, the attribute has no object;
the term has no meaning. Dead matter is no-
thing. The parts, therefore, especially the
limbs and senses of animals, although they
tonstitute, in mass and quantity, a small por-
tion of the material creation, yet, since they
alone are instruments of perception, they com-
pose what may be called the whole of visible
nature, estimated with a view to the disposi-
tion of its Author. Consequently, it is in these
that we are to seek his character. It is by
these that we are to prove, that the world was
made with a benevolent design.

times with equal attention and amusement,; all conduce to show their excess of spirits, and are simply the effects of that excess. Walking by the sea-side, in a calm evening, upon a sandy shore, and with an ebbing tide. I have frequently remarked the appearance of a dark cloud, or rather, very thick mist, hanging over the edge of the water, to the height, perhaps, of half a yard, and of the breadth of two or three yards, stretching along the coast as far as the eye could reach, and always retiring with the water. When this cloud came to be examined, it proved to be nothing else than so much space, filled with young shrimps, in the act of bounding into the air from the shallow margin of the water, or from the wet sand. If any motion of a mute animal could express delight, it was this: if they had meant to make signs of their happiness, they could not have done it more intelligibly. Suppose, then, what I have no doubt of, each individual of this number to be in a state of positive enjoyment, what a sum, collectively, of gratification and pleasure have we here before our view!

Nor is the design abortive. It is a happy world after all. The air, the earth, the water, teem with delighted existence. In a spring noon, or a summer evening, on whichever side The young of all animals appear to me to reI turn my eyes, myriads of happy beings crowd ceive pleasure simply from the exercise of their upon my view. "The insect youth are on limbs and bodily faculties, without reference the wing." Swarms of new-born flies are try- to any end to be attained, or any use to be aning their pinions in the air. Their sportive swered by the exertion. A child, without motions, their wanton mazes, their gratuitous knowing any thing of the use of language, is activity, their continual change of place with- in a high degree delighted with being able to out use or purpose, testify their joy, and the speak. Its incessant repetition of a few artiexultation which they feel in their lately dis- culate sounds, or, perhaps, of the single word covered faculties. A bee amongst the flowers which it has learnt to pronounce, proves this in spring, is one of the most cheerful objects point clearly. Nor is it less pleased with its that can be looked upon. Its life appears to first successful endeavours to walk, or rather be all enjoyment; so busy, and so pleased; to run (which precedes walking,) although yet it is only a specimen of insect life, with entirely ignorant of the importance of the atwhich, by reason of the animal being half do- tainment to its future life, and even without mesticated, we happen to be better acquainted applying it to any present purpose. A child than we are with that of others. The whole is delighted with speaking, without having any winged insect tribe, it is probable, are equally thing to say, and with walking, without knowintent upon their proper employments, and ing where to go. And, prior to both these, I under every variety of constitution, gratified, am disposed to believe, that the waking hours and perhaps equally gratified, by the offices of infancy are agreeably taken up with the exwhich the Author of their nature has assign-ercise of vision, or perhaps, more properly ed to them. But the atmosphere is not the speaking, with learning to see.

only scene of enjoyment for the insect race. But it is not for youth alone that the great Plants are covered with aphides, greedily suck-Parent of creation hath provided. Happiness ing their juices, and constantly, as it should is found with the purring cat, no less than seem, in the act of sucking. It cannot be with the playful kitten; in the arm-chair of doubted but that this is a state of gratification. dozing age, as well as in either the sprightliWhat else should fix them so close to the ness of the dance, or the animation of the operation, and so long? Other species are run- chase. To novelty, to acuteness of sensation, ning about, with an alacrity in their motions, to hope, to ardour of pursuit, succeeds, what which carries with it every mark of pleasure. is, in no inconsiderable degree, an equivalent Large patches of ground are sometimes half for them all, “perception of ease." Herein is covered with these brisk and sprightly na- the exact difference between the young and tures. If we look to what the waters produce, the old. The young are not happy, but when shoals of the fry of fish frequent the margins enjoying pleasure; the old are happy, when of rivers, of lakes, and of the sea itself. These free from pain. And this constitution suits are so happy, that they know not what to do with the degrees of animal power which they with themselves. Their attitudes, their vi- respectively possess. The vigour of youth was vacity, their leaps out of the water, their fro-to be stimulated to action by impatience of lies in it, (which I have noticed a thousand rest; whilst to the imbecility of age, quietness

petites, ruminating in their holes, accomplishing their wishes, pursuing their pleasures, taking their pastimes! In each individual, how many things must go right for it to be at ease; yet how large a proportion out of every species is so in every assignable instant! Secondly, we contend, in the terms of our original proposition, that throughout the whole of life, as it is diffused in nature, and as far as we are acquainted with it, looking to the

and repose become positive gratifications. In | millions. At this moment, in every given one important respect the advantage is with moment of time, how many myriads of anithe old. A state of ease is, generally speak- mals are eating their food, gratifying their ap ing, more attainable than a state of pleasure. A constitution, therefore, which can enjoy ease, is preferable to that which can taste only pleasure. This same perception of ease of tentimes renders old age a condition of great comfort; especially when riding at its anchor after a busy or tempestuous life. It is well described by Rousseau, to be the interval of repose and enjoyment, between the hurry and the end of life. How far the same cause extends to other animal natures, cannot be judg-average of sensations, the plurality and the ed of with certainty. The appearance of satisfaction, with which most animals, as their activity subsides, seek and enjoy rest, affords reason to believe, that this source of gratification is appointed to advanced life, under all, or most, of its various forms. In the species with which we are best acquainted, namely, our own, I am far, even as an observer of human life, from thinking that youth is its happiest season, much less the only happy one: as a Christian, I am willing to believe that there is a great deal of truth in the following representation given by a very pious writer, as well as excellent man: To the intelligent and virtuous, old age presents a scene of want. tranquil enjoyments, of obedient appetite, of One great cause of our insensibility to the well-regulated affections, of maturity in know-goodness of the Creator, is the very extensiveledge, and of calm preparation for immortali-ness of his bounty. We prize but little what ty. In this serene and dignified state, placed as it were on the confines of two worlds, the mind of a good man reviews what is past, with the complacency of an approving conscience; and looks forward, with humble confidence in the mercy of God, and with devout aspirations towards his eternal and ever-increasing favour."

What is seen in different stages of the same life, is still more exemplified in the lives of different animals. Animal enjoyments are infinitely diversified. The modes of life, to which the organization of different animals respectively determines them, are not only of various but of opposite kinds. Yet each is happy in its own. For instance: animals of prey live much alone; animals of a milder constitution in society. Yet the herring, which lives in shoals, and the sheep, which lives in flocks, are not more happy in a crowd, or more contented amongst their companions, than is the pike, or the lion, with the deep solitudes of the pool, or the forest.

preponderancy is in favour of happiness by a vast excess. In our own species, in which perhaps the assertion may be more questionable than in any other, the prepollency of good over evil, of health, for example, and ease, over pain and distress, is evinced by the very notice which calamities excite. What inquiries does the sickness of our friends produce! what conversation their misfortunes! This shows that the common course of things is in favour of happiness; that happiness is the rule, misery the exception. Were the order reversed, our attention would be called to examples of health and competency, instead of disease and

we share only in common with the rest, or with the generality of our species. When we hear of blessings, we think forthwith of successes, of prosperous fortunes, of honours, riches, preferments, i. e. of those advantages and superiorities over others, which we happen either to possess, or to be in pursuit of, or to covet. The common benefits of our nature entirely escape us. Yet these are the great things. These constitute what most properly ought to be accounted blessings of Providence; what alone, if we might so speak, are worthy of its care. Nightly rest and daily bread, the ordinary use of our limbs, and senses, and understandings, are gifts which admit of no comparison with any other. Yet, because almost every man we meet with possesses these, we leave them out of our enumeration. They raise no sentiment; they move no gratitude. Now, herein is our judgment perverted by our selfishness. A blessing ought in truth to be the more satisfactory, the bounty at least of the donor is rendered more conspiBut it will be said, that the instances which cuous, by its very diffusion, its commonness, we have here brought forward, whether of vi- its cheapness; by its falling to the lot, and vacity or repose, or of apparent enjoyment de-forming the happiness, of the great bulk and rived from either, are picked and favourable instances. We answer, first, that they are instances, nevertheless, which comprise large provinces of sensitive existence; that every case which we have described, is the case of

body of our species, as well as of ourselves. Nay, even when we do not possess it, it ought to be matter of thankfulness that others do But we have a different way of thinking. We court distinction. That is not the worst: we see nothing but what has distinction to recom-) mend it. This necessarily contracts our views

of the Creator s beneficence within a narrow if you will, let it be called a defect in the concompass; and most unjustly. It is in those trivance: but it is not the object of it. This things which are so common as to be no dis- is a distinction which well deserves to be at-l tinction, that the amplitude of the Divine benignity is perceived.

But pain, no doubt, and privations exist, in numerous instances, and to a degree, which, collectively, would be very great, if they were compared with any other thing than with the mass of animal fruition. For the application, therefore, of our proposition to that mixed state of things which these exceptions induce, two rules are necessary, and both, I think, just and fair rules. One is, that we regard those effects alone which are accompanied with proofs of intention: The other, that when we cannot resolve all appearances into benevolence of design, we make the few give place to the many; the little to the great; that we take our judgment from a large and decided preponderancy, if there be one.

I crave leave to transcribe into this place, what I have said upon this subject in my Moral Philosophy: :

"When God created the human species, either he wished their happiness, or he wished their misery, or he was indifferent and unconcerned about either.

"If he had wished our misery, he might have made sure of his purpose, by forming our senses to be so many sores and pains to us, as they are now instruments of gratification and enjoyment: or by placing us amidst obiects, so ill suited to our perceptions, as to have continually offended us instead of ministering to our refreshment and delight. He might have made, for example, every thing we tasted, bitter; every thing we saw, loathsome; every thing we touched, a sting; every smell, a stench; and every sound, a discord.

tended to. In describing implements of hus-
bandry, you would hardly say of the sickle,
that it is made to cut the reaper's hand;
though from the construction of the instru-
ment, and the manner of using it, this mis-
chief often follows. But if you had occasion
to describe instruments of torture, or execu
tion: this engine, you would say, is to extend
the sinews; this to dislocate the joints; this to
break the bones; this to scorch the soles of the
feet. Here, pain and misery are the very objects
of the contrivance. Now, nothing of this sort is
to be found in the works of nature. We never
discover a train of contrivance to bring about.
an evil purpose. No anatomist ever discovered
a system of organization calculated to produce:
pain and disease; or, in explaining the parts
of the human body, ever said, this is to irri-
tate; this to inflame; this duct is to convey
the gravel to the kidneys; this gland to se-
crete the humour which forms the gout: if by
chance he come at a part of which he knows not
the use, the most he can say is, that it is use-
less; no one ever suspects that it is put there
to incommode, to annoy, or to torment."

The TWO CASES which appear to me to have the most difficulty in them, as forming the most of the appearance of exception to the representation here given, are those of venomous animals, and of animals preying upon one another. These properties of animals, wherever they are found, must, I think, be referred to design; because there is in all cases of the first, and in most cases of the second, an express and distinct organization provided for the producing of them. Under the first head, the fangs of vipers, the stings of wasps and scorpions, are as clearly intended for their purpose, as any animal structure is for any pur

"If he had been indifferent about our happiness or misery, we must impute to our good fortune (as all design by this supposition is ex-pose the most incontestably beneficial. And cluded) both the capacity of our senses to receive pleasure, and the supply of external objects fitted to produce it.

the same thing must, under the second head, be acknowledged of the talons and beaks of birds, of the tusks, teeth, and claws of beasts "But either of these, and still more both of of prey; of the shark's mouth, of the spider's them, being too much to be attributed to ac-web, and, of numberless weapons of offence becident, nothing remains but the first supposi-longing to different tribes of voracious insects. tion, that God, when he created the human species, wished their happiness; and made for them the provision which he has made with that view and for that purpose.

We cannot, therefore, avoid the difficulty by saying, that the effect was not intended. The only question open to us is, whether it be ultimately evil. From the confessed and felt "The same argument may be proposed in imperfection of our knowledge, we ought to different terms; thus Contrivance proves de- presume, that there may be consequences of sign: and the predominant tendency of the this economy which are hidden from us : from contrivance indicates the disposition of the de- the benevolence which pervades the general signer. The world abounds with contrivan-designs of nature, we ought also to presume, ces and all the contrivances which we are acquainted with, are directed to beneficial purposes. Evil, no doubt, exists; but is never, that we can perceive, the object of contrivance. Teeth are contrived to eat, not to ache; their aching now and then is incidental to the contrivance, perhaps inseparable from it; or even,

that these consequences, if they could enter into our calculation, would turn the balance on the favourable side. Both these I contend to be reasonable presumptions. Not reasonable presumptions, if these two cases were the only cases which nature presented to our ob servation but reasonable presumptions, un