áre the flesh of animals, seeds or grain, vegetables, and fruits, and, of these corn or grain appears to be the most essential to our comfort.

Bread, frequently called "the staff of life," in this country, is chiefly made of flour, that is, of wheat ground to powder; wheat is an annual plant extensively culti vated in England; it is called an annual, because it only continues one year, that is, the seed is sown, it springs up, ripens, and then dies, all within the twelve months.

In order to produce wheat, the ground is ploughed, and the soil made fine by frequent harrowings, then the seed is sown, much the same as we sow garden seeds, and it is covered by means of the harrow, a wooden frame set with long iron teeth, and drawn by horses.

The harrow is to the field what the rake is to the garden; when the seed is covered with the soil, it strikes root, and springs up, requiring not much care till the autumn, when it is cut down, sometimes with a scythe, sometimes with a machine*, but perhaps, more frequently by the reapers, who use a hook or sickle, that is a kind of knife in the form of a bow.

When the wheat is cut down, it is tied up in bundles called sheaves, and allowed to remain in the field till perfectly dry, when it is carted home and piled up in stacks until it is required for use.

When wanted for use or sale, it is threshed out, that is, the corn is separated from the straw, sometimes by labourers with instruments called flails, but more frequently by means of a threshing machine, turned by horses or steam.

The chaff or outward covering is taken out by the winnowing machine; then the wheat passes into the miller's hands, who converts it into meal; this is done by making the grains of wheat drop between two large

* Ma-cheen.

round stones, the upper one of which turns round, and crushes or grinds it into powder.

The meal is then sifted or dressed, that is, all the coarse parts are taken out, and the flour is ready for the baker, who mixes it with water, yeast, and a little salt, and when the paste has sufficiently fermented, it is formed into loaves and baked.

The other grains cultivated in this country are oats, barley, and rye: oats are chiefly used in feeding horses, and they are ascertained to impart more strength to them, than any other grain: in Scotland and some of the English northern counties, oats are ground into oatmeal, and made into bread, that is, thin cakes called oaten or haver cakes.

Barley is very extensively cultivated for the purpose of making into malt, used in brewing ale and porter, and in distilling British spirits; it is also used for fattening pigs and poultry; when deprived of its outer skin it becomes what is called Scotch barley, and when the inner skin is also stripped off, it is pearl barley, much used in broth, stews, and gruel.

Rye is not so much cultivated as the other grains, but in the North it is frequently grown amongst wheat, and together they are called meslin, which makes a most wholesome brown bread; in some parts of the country, rye is sown in the autumn to furnish green food for the cattle and sheep in the spring.

LESSON L.

HENRY IV.-HENRY V.-HENRY VI.

Richard II. was succeeded by HENRY IV, surnamed Bolingbroke, in the year 1399. Henry, not being the

nearest to the crown, soon found out that the throne of a usurper is no comfortable seat; numerous conspiracies were formed against him, and although he succeeded in crushing them, yet it was not without the loss of much blood.

A remarkable instance of independence in a judge occurred in this reign: one of the dissolute companions of Prince Henry, the king's eldest son, was found guilty of some excess, when Sir William Gascoigne, the Lord Chief Justice, committed him to prison; this so incensed the young prince, that in the heat of the moment, he struck the venerable judge in open court, who, in return, ordered him to prison.

The prince immediately saw the glaring impropriety of his conduct, and modestly submitted to the punish

ment.

When all the circumstances were related to the king, he exclaimed, "Happy is the king who has a magistrate bold enough to execute justice on such an offender, and yet more happy, in being the father of a son, who, having erred, feels himself amenable to the laws of his country."

Henry conducted the public affairs of his kingdom with great prudence, and had he lawfully succeeded to the throne, he would have been a popular monarch; after a short reign of thirteen years, he was taken off by fits, to which he had, for some time been subject.

Henry IV. was succeeded by his eldest son, HENRY V., in the year 1413. On Henry's ascending the throne, one of his first acts was to call together his former dissolute companions, and to exhort them to change their manner of life, promising them his support if they conducted themselves with discretion.

He treated the venerable judge, who had committed him to prison, with the most marked attention, and took

him into his confidence; he also placed the other faithful servants of his father in offices of the highest trust. : Henry, knowing that France was involved in great internal troubles, took the opportunity of invading that country with a large army, and being successful in many battles, he managed by negotiations, to be elected heir to the monarchy, having first married Catharine, the, king's daughter.

But such is the uncertainty of human projects, that he was seized with a fistula, which soon terminated in death, after a reign of nine years. During this reign flourished the celebrated Sir Richard Whittington "thrice Lord Mayor of London."

Henry, in his person, was tall and graceful, and possessed of great abilities, but some cruelties of, which. he was guilty, will ever leave a blot upon his memory;; amongst these may be named, his causing Lord Cobham to be roasted alive on account of his religious opinions.

Henry V. was succeeded by his son HENRY VI when not yet twelve months old, in the year 1422.. His uncle, the Duke of Bedford, an able and accomplished prince, was placed at the head of affairs during the young king's minority.

The great, object of the duke's desire was the complete, subjugation of France to English rule, and when this appeared to be nearly accomplished, all his plans were frustrated by a single circumstance, namely, the fanat'ic bravery of a country girl, named, Joan of Arc, the celebrated Maid of Orleans.

Believing that she had a sacred mission from Heaven, to save her country, the French soldiers placed under her directions, fought with the most enthusiastic bravery, and victory followed victory, until all our possessions in France were lost, with the exception of Calais.

When Henry arrived at man's estate he gave so many

proofs of his incapacity for ruling, that Richard, Duke of York, in reality the rightful king, secretly aspired to the throne, and thus began the contests between the houses of York and Lancaster, which for a number of years deluged the country with blood.

Richard, in carrying out his plans, was slain in battle, and his son Edward became the claimant; after a great deal of fighting between the two parties, Edward was successful, and Henry being taken prisoner, was confined in the Tower of London, where he was afterwards murdered, after a reign of thirty-eight years.

LESSON LL

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION.

The swallow is a migrating bird, leaving us in the autumn, and returning again in the spring, in time to build its nest; it subsists altogether on insects, caught in the air while flying.

Were the swallow to remain here in winter, it would perish from the want of food; therefore, it is furnished with instinct, which guides it to warmer climates, where insects are not cut off by the cold.

Nature has furnished fishes with an air bladder which they can expand or contract at pleasure-when they expand it they are lighter than the water; when they contract it, they are heavier, and it is this that enables them to rise or fall with so much ease.

The surface of the globe, as far as we can ascertain, consists of minerals, earths, vegetables, and animals, and in these, changes are continually taking place-minerals,