CHAPTER XVIII THEORY AND PRACTICE BY THE MIDDLE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY THE Readings of this chapter have been selected first to illustrate the development of educational theory up to the time of Rousseau, and second to illustrate the conditions and practices in the vernacular schools as they had developed up to about 1750. In the preceding chapters Readings have been given to illustrate ancient and mediæval educational theories; the theories of the Reformation leaders have also been set forth at some length; and in the chapter just before this one the development of educational theory in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was illustrated. In this chapter the work of Mulcaster is illustrated by reproducing the table of contents of his Positions (226), to show what he attempted to set forth; and the ideas as to education of John Locke are further illustrated by two additional selections, one on the method of teaching Latin (227) and one on the use of the Bible as a reading book (228). All the remaining Readings of the chapter are given to illustrate the status of elementary education by about the middle of the eighteenth century. The first (229) reproduces the titlepages of two of the earliest spellers, as these show quite well the nature of the volumes and the rather broad purpose they were designed to serve. The next five selections are contemporary penpictures of schools and school work, R. 230 describing a common type of American school of about 1760; R. 231 the teachers in the famous Duchy of Gotha (R. 163), as they were in 1741; R. 232 gives a picture of popular education in Sweden during the eighteenth century; R. 233 is an interesting comment on school conditions and the proprietary rights of teachers in the city of Frankfurt-am-Main; R. 234 gives an interesting description of an examination for a teacher's position, in 1793, in Switzerland; and R. 235 reproduces a number of literary descriptions of that famous English institution - the Dame School. Reading 236 is an agreement with a parochial-school teacher, and indicates the nature of his duties and the sources of his emoluments. The five Readings which follow relate to the establishment of the English religious charity-schools. The first (237) gives the Minutes relating to the establishment of one of the earliest of these schools. The second reproduces first (238 a) the qualifications for a master in such a school and the next (238 b) describes the purpose and nature of the instruction. The third Reading (239) gives a list of the textbooks used in the S.P.C.K. schools, and reproduces the title-pages of two of these books. The fourth (240) is a subscription form for maintaining a charity-school. This subscription form also is illustrative of the means of support for many semi-public schools, in the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early nineteenth as well. The fifth selection (241) is typical of many charity-schools for girls established by the church parishes in England during the eighteenth century. The Indenture of Apprenticeship (242) is an eighteenth-century document, and shows the form these had taken by 1708. Compare this with Readings 99, 200 a-b, and 201. Reading 243, which follows, shows that the apprenticeship idea was followed even in the training of schoolmasters. The next Reading (244) is an interesting description of the instruction and discipline in the schools of Germany in the eighteenth century, while the one which follows (245) is illustrative of English discipline in the same century, and shows its impartial nature in the careful classification of offenses and punishments. Reading 246, together with 236, describes early methods of school support. 226. Table of Contents of Mulcaster's Positions (Mulcaster, Richard, Positions. London, 1581. Reprint, edited by R. H. Quick. London, 1887) In 1581 there appeared in London a book of more than ordinary importance, "Written by Richard Mulcaster, Master of the Schools erected in London Anno. 1561, in the parish of Sainct Laurence Povvntneie, by the vvorshipfull Companie of the Merchaunt Tailers of the said Citie." It was entitled: POSITIONS WHERIN THOSE PRIMITIVE CIRCUMSTANCES The book was written in a heavy, stilted style, and in rather prolix English, and awakened but little interest. The ideas which Mulcaster advanced, though, were so far in advance of his age that, as Quick well says, educational progress would have been advanced materially had the world listened to this London schoolmaster. The most remarkable ideas of the book are contained in chapters 4-6, 36-38, and 41. The table of contents of the volume give a rather good idea as to the reforms he proposed. Summarized, these are: CHAPTER 1- 3. The occasion of the discourse; why it was penned in English; "wherefore these Positions serve"; introductory material. 4. What time were best for the childe to begin to learne. What matters some of the best writers handle eare they determine this question. Of letes and libertie, whervnto the parentes are subiect in setting their children to schoole. Of the difference of wittes and bodies in children. That exercise must be ioyned with the booke, as the schooling of the bodie. 5. What thinges they be, wherin children are to be trained, eare they passe to the Grammar. That parentes, and maisters ought to examine the naturall abilities in children, whereby they become either fit, or vnfit, to this, or that kinde of life. The three naturall powers in children, Witte to conceiue by, Memorie to retaine by, Discretion to discerne by. That the training vp to good manners, and nurture, doth not belong to the teacher alone, though most to him, next after the parent, whose charge that is most, bycause his commaundement is greatest, ouer his owne childe, and beyond appeale. Of Reading, Writing, Drawing, Musicke by voice, and instrument: and that they be the principall principls, to traine vp the minde in. A generall aunswere to all obiections, which arise against any, or all of these. 6. Of exercises and training the body. How necessarie a thing exercise is. What health is, and how it is maintained: what sicknesse is, how it commeth, and how it is preuented. What a parte exercise playeth in the maintenaunce of health. Of the student and his health. That all exercises though they stirre some one parte most, yet helpe the whole bodie. 7. The braunching, order, and methode, kept in this discourse of exercises. 8- 9. On exercise. 10-12. On lowde speaking and singing. 12. On lowde and soft reading. 13-19. On talking, silence, laughing, weeping, holding breath, dancing, wrestling, fencing, top, and scourge. 20-27. On walking, running, leaping, swimming, riding, hunting, shooting, and play of ball. 28-34. On nature, quality, time, place, manner, and quantity of exercise. 35. On the master. Importance of good teachers in the beginning years. 36. That both yong boyes, and yong maidens are to be put to learne. Whether all boyes be to be set to schoole. That tɔ many learned be burdenous: to few to bare: wittes well sorted ciuill: missorted seditious. That all may learne to write and reade without daunger. The good of choice, the ill of confusion. The children which are set to learne hauing either rich or poore freindes, what order and choice is to be vsed in admitting either of them to learne. Of the time to chuse. 37. The meanes to restraine the ouerflowing multitude of scholers. The cause why euery one desireth, to haue his childe learned, and yet must yeilde ouer his owne desire to the disposition of his countrie. That necessitie and choice be the best restrainers. That necessitie restraineth by lacke and law. Why it may be admitted that all may learne to writ and reade that can, but no further. What is to be thought of the speaking and vnderstanding of latine, and in what degree of learning that is. That considering our time, and the state of religion. in our time law must needes helpe this restraint, with the aunswere to such obiections as are made to the contrarie. That in choice of wittes, which must deale with learning, that wit is fittest for our state which aunswereth best the monarchie, and how such a wit is to be knowne. That choice is to helpe in schooling, in admission into colledges, in proceding to degrees, in preferring to liuings, where the right and wrong of all the foure pointes be handled at full. 38. That yong maidens are to be set to learning, which is proued by the custome of our countrie, by our duetie towardes them, by their naturall abilitie, and by the worthie effectes of such, as haue bene well trained. The ende whereunto their education serueth, which is the cause why and how much they learne. Which of them are to learne. When they are to beginne to learne: What and how much they may learne. Of whom and where they ought to be taught. 39-40. Of the training of young gentlemen; public and private education; travel; types of schools. 41. Of teachers and trainers in generall: and that they be either Elementarie, Grammattical, or Academicall. Of the elemen tarie teachers abilitie and entertainement: of the grammar maisters abilitie and his entertainement. A meane to haue both excellent teachers and cunning professours in all kindes of learning: by the diuision of colledges according to professions: by sorting like yeares into the same rowmes: by bettering the studentes allowance and liuing: by prouiding and maintaining notable well learned readers. That for bringing learning forward in her right and best course, there would be seuen ordinarie ascending colledges for tounges, for mathematikes, for philosophie, for teachers, for physicians, for lawyers, for diuines. And that the generall studie of law, would be but onc studie. Euery of these points with his particular proufes sufficient for a position. On the admission of teachers. 42-45. The elementarie years; school management; school faults; parent and teacher coöperation; and peroration. 227. Locke on the Teaching of Latin (Locke, John, Some Thoughts concerning Education. London, 1693) In the Introduction to Reading 216 we gave a statement as to the origin of Locke's Thoughts, which see. The following selection, on the teaching of Latin, gives a good idea as to the reforms Locke proposed in the teaching of the secondary-school subjects of his time. § 162. As soon as he can speak English, 't is time for him to learn some other Language. This no body doubts of, when French is propos'd. And the reason is, because People are accustomed to the right Way of teaching that Language, which is by talking it into Children in constant Conversation, and not by grammatical Rules. The Latin Tongue would easily be taught the same Way, if his Tutor, being constantly with him, would talk nothing else to him, and make him answer still in the same Language. § 164. Latin I look upon as absolutely necessary to a Gentleman; and indeed Custom, which prevails over every thing, has made it so much a Part of Education that even those Children are whipp'd to it, and made spend many Hours of their precious Time uneasily in Latin, who, after they are once gone from School, are never to have more to do with it as long as they live. Can there be any thing more ridiculous, than that a Father should waste his own Money and his Son's Time in setting him to learn the Roman Language, when at the same time he designs him for a Trade, wherein he having no use of Latin, fails not to forget that little which he brought from School, and which 't is ten to one he abhors for the ill Usage it procured him? Could it be believed, |