number have been difcovered in the material as well as moral world, with refpect to many particulars that once appeared dark and gloomy. Many continue to have that appearance: but with respect to these, is it too bold to maintain, that an argument from ignorance, a slender argument at any rate, is altogether infufficient in judging of divine government? How falutary is it for man, and how comfortable, to rest on the faith, that whatever is, is the best! SKETCH 390 ΤΗ SKETCH II. General View of GoVERNMENT. HE progrefs of government, accurately delineated, would produce a great volume: in this work there is room but for a few hints. What are the means that fit men for fociety, is explained above; but writers are far from being unanimous about the means that fit them for government. All agree, that fubmiffion to our governors is a duty: but they appear to be at a lofs upon what foundation to reft that duty; as if it were not evident, that by our nature we are fitted for government as well as for fociety (a). If justice or veracity be effential to fociety, fubmiffion to government is no lefs fo; and each of these equally is declared by the moral fenfe to be our duty. But to qualify man for government, the duty of fubmiffion alone is not fufficient: diverfity of temper and of talents are also neceffary; and accordingly it is fo ordered by Providence, that there are never wanting in any fociety men who are qualified to lead, as well as men who are disposed to follow. Where a number of people convene for any purpose, fome will naturally affume authority without the formality of election, and the reft will as naturally fubmit. A regular government, founded on laws, was probably not thought of, till people had frequently fuffered by vicious governors (a) Principles of Equity, p. 177, edit. 2. During At first, when a certain regimen was once approved, it may be that all was permitted During the infancy of national focieties, government is extremely fimple; and no lefs mild than fimple. No individual is by nature intitled to exercife magifterial authority over his fellows; for no individual is born with any mark of pre-eminence to vouch that he has fuch a privilege. But nature teaches refpect for men of age and experience; who accordingly take the lead in deliberating and advifing, leaving execution to the leaving execution to the young and vigorous. War indeed cannot be carried on without a commander; but originally his authority was limited to actual war; and he returned home a private perfon, even when crowned with victory. The wants of men were originally fo few, and so easily satisfied, as feldom to occafion a controverfy among members of the fame tribe. And men, finding vent for their diffocial pafsions against other tribes, were fond to live peaceably at home. Introduction of money made an amazing change. Wealth beftow'd by fortune, or procured by rapine, made an impreffion on the vulgar: different ranks were recognised: the rich became imperious, and the poor mutinous. Selfishness, prevailing over focial affection, stirred up every man against his neighbour; and permitted to the wisdom and discretion of thofe who were to rule; till by experience this was found very inconvenient, fo as the thing devised for a remedy did increase the fore which it fhould have cured. They faw," that to live by one "man's will, became the caufe of all mens mifery." This constrained them to come into laws, wherein all men might fee their duty beforehand, and know the penalties of tranfgreffing them. Hooker's Eccl. Pol. l. 1. § 10. * Such as are acquainted with no manners but what are modern, will be puzzled to account for the great veneration paid to old age in early times. Before writing was invented, old men were the repofitories of knowledge, which they acquired by experience; and young men had no access to knowledge but from them. At the fiege of Troy, Neftor, who had feen three generations, was the chief advifer and director of the Greeks. But as books are now the most patent road to knowledge, to which the old and young have accefs, it may juftly be obferved, that by the invention of writing and printing, old men have loft much of their priftine importance. men, men, overlooking their natural enemies, gave vent to diffocial paffions within their own tribe. It became necessary to strengthen the hands of the fovereign, for repreffing paffions inflamed by opulence, which tend to a diffolution of fociety. This flight view fairly accounts for the gradual progress of government from the mildest form to the most defpotic. The fecond part of the progrefs is more pleafing. Men long enured to the authority of government, acquire a habit of repreffing their turbulent paffions; and becoming by degrees regular and orderly, they are easily restrained from doing wrong. During the infancy of a fociety, punishments must be mild; because government has no fufficient authority over the minds of men to enforce what are severe. But government in time acquires authority; and when its authority is firmly rooted in the minds of the people, punishments more rigorous can be made effectual; and fuch punishments are neceffary among a people not yet well difciplined. When men at last become regular and orderly under a steady administration, punishments become lefs and lefs neceffary, and the mildest are fufficient (a). The Chinese government. is extremely mild, and its punishments are in the fame tone. A capital punishment is never inflicted, till the fentence be examined by a fovereign court, and approved by the Emperor. Thus government, after paffing through all the intermediate degrees from extreme mildness to extreme feverity, returns at last to its original temper of mildness and humanity *. * An ingenious writer obferves, that as our American fettlements are now fo profperous, banishment to thefe fettlements is fcarce a punishment. He therefore propofes, that criminals be tranfported to Hudfon's bay, or to fome other uncultivated country. My doubt is, that in proportion as manners improve, the feverity of punishment ought to be mitigated. Perhaps, the tranfportation to any of our American colonies, tho' lefs dreadful than formerly, may however be now a fufficient punishment for theft, or other crime of no deeper dye. (a) Hiftorical Law-tracts, tract 1. SKETCH 393 SKETCH III. Different FORMS OF GOVERNMENT compared. F all governments, democracy is the most turbulent: defpotifm, which benumbs the mental faculties, and relaxes every spring of action, is in the oppofite extreme. Mixed governments, whether monarchical or republican, ftand in the middle: they promote activity, but feldom any dangerous excess. Pure democracy, like that of Athens, Argos, and Carthage, is the very worst form of government, if we make not defpotifm an exception. The people, in whom refides the fovereign power, are infolent in profperity, timid in adversity, cruel in anger, blind and prodigal in affection, and incapable of embracing steadily a prudent measure. Thucydides relates (a), that Agis with a gallant army of Spartans furrounded the army of Argos; and, tho' fecure of victory, fuffered them to retreat, upon folemn affurances from Thrafyllus, the Argian general, of terminating all differences in an amicable treaty. Agis, perhaps justly, was bitterly cenfured for suffering victory to flip out of his hands: but the Argians, dreaming of victory when the danger was over, brought their general to trial, confifcated his effects, and would have ftoned him to death, had he not taken refuge in a temple. Two Athenian generals, after one naval victory, being intent on a fecond, deputed Theramenes to perform (a) Lib. 5. VOL. I. 3 D the |