nate all the inhabitants of the country by their native, or rather Persian name, Cappadoces; but it was applied more particularly to the inhabitants of the coast district on the Euxine, between the rivers Halys and Iris. (Hecat. Fragm. 194, 200, 350; Marcian. Heracl. p. 72.) Ptolemy (v. 6. § 2) also applies the name exclusively to the inhabitants about the Iris, and treats of their country as a part of the province of Cappadocia. The Leucosyri were regarded as colonists, who had been planted there during the early conquests of the Assyrians, and were successively subject to Lydia, Persia, and Macedonia; but after the time of Alexander their name is scarcely mentioned, the people having become entirely amalgamated with the nations among which they lived. [L. S.] LEUCOTHEES FANUM (AeUкobéas iepóv), a temple and oracle in the district of the Moschi in Colchis. Its legendary founder was Phryxus; the temple was plundered by Pharnaces and then by Mithridates. (Strab. xi. p. 498.) The site has been placed near Suram, on the frontiers of Imiretis and Kartuhlia, where two large "tumuli" are now found. (Dubois de Montpereux, Voyage Autour du Caucase, vol. ii. p. 349, comp. p. 17, vol. iii. p. 171.) [E. B. J.] LEUCOTHEIUM. [LEUCOLLA.] LEUCTRA (τὰ Λεύκτρα). 1. A village of Boeotia, situated on the road from Thespiae to Plataea (Strab. ix. p. 414), and in the territory of the former city. (Xen. Hell. vi. 4. § 4). Its name only occurs in history on account of the celebrated battle fought in its neighbourhood between the Spartans and Thebans, B. C. 371, by which the supremacy of Sparta was for ever overthrown. In the plain of Leuctra, was the tomb of the two daughters of Scedasus, a Leúctrian, who had been violated by two Spartans, and had afterwards slain themselves; this tomb was crowned with wreaths by Epaminondas before the battle, since an oracle had predicted that the Spartans would be defeated at this spot (Xen. Hell. vi. 4. § 7; Diod. xv. 54; Paus. ix. 13. § 3; Plut. Pelop. cc. 20, 21). The city of Leuctra, is sometimes supposed to be represented by the extensive ruins at Lefka (Aevka), which are situated immediately below the modern village of Rimókastro. But these ruins are clearly those of Thespiae, as appears from the inscriptions found there, as well as from their importance; for Leuctra was never anything more than a village in the territory of Thespiae, and had apparently ceased to exist in the time of Strabo, who calls it simply a Tóros (x. p. 414). The real site of Leuctra, "is very clearly marked by a tumulus and some artificial ground on the summit of the ridge which borders the southern side of the valley of Thespiae. The battle of Leuctra was fought probably in the valley on the northern side of the tumulus, about midway between Thespiae, and the western extremity of the plain of Plataea. Cleombrotus, in order to avoid the Boeotians, who were expecting him by the direct route from Phocis, marched by Thisbe and the valleys on the southern side of Mount Helicon; and having thus made his appearance suddenly at Creusis, the port of Thespiae, captured that fortress. From thence, he moved upon Leuctra, where he intrenched himself on a rising ground; after which the Thebans encamped on an opposite hill, at no great distance. The position of the latter, therefore, seems to have been on the eastern prolongation of the height of Rimó kastro." (Leake.) The tumulus is probably the place of sepulture of the 1000 Lacedaemonians who fell in the battle. For a full account of this celebrated contest, see Grote, Hist. of Greece, vol. x. p. 239, seq. In ancient times, the neighbourhood of Leuctra appears to have been well wooded, as we may infer from the epithet of "shady" bestowed upon it by the oracle of Delphi (Aeûkтpa σkIÓEYTA, Paus. ix. 14. § 3); but at present there is scarcely a shrub or a tree to be seen in the surrounding country. (Leake, North. Greece, vol. ii. p. 480, seq. 2. Or LEUCTRUM (тà Aеûктρа, Paus.; тò AeûкTpov, Strab., Plut., Ptol.), a town of Laconia, situated on the eastern side of the Messenian gulf, 20 stadia north of Pephnus, and 60 stadia south of Cardamyle. Strabo speaks of Leuctrum as near the minor Pamisus, but this river flows into the sea at Pephnus, about three miles south of Leuctrum [PEPHNUS]. The ruins of Leuctrum are still called Leftro. Leuctrum was said to have been founded by Pelops, and was claimed by the Messenians as originally one of their towns. It was awarded to the latter people by Philip in B.C. 338, but in the time of the Roman empire it was one of the Eleuthero-Laconian places. (Strab. viii. pp. 360, 361; Paus. iii. 21. § 7, iii. 26. § 4, seq.; Plut. Pelop. 20; Plin. iv. 5. s. 8; Ptol. iii. 16. § 9.) Pausanias saw in Leuctra a temple and statue of Athena on the Acropolis, a temple and statue of Cassandra (there called Alexandra), a marble statue of Asclepius, another of Ino, and wooden figures of Apollo Carneius. (Paus. iii. 26. § 4, seq). (Leake, Morea, vol. i. p. 331, Peloponnesiaca, p. 179; Boblaye, Récherches, &c. p. 93; Curtius Peloponnesos, vol. ii. p. 285.) 3. Or LEUCTRUM (và Akzpa, Thue. Xen.; rò AEUKтрov, Paus.), a fortress of the district Aegytis, on the confines of Arcadia and Laconia, described by Thucydides (v. 54) as on the confines of Laconia towards Mt. Lycaeus, and by Xenophon (Hell. vi. 5. § 24). It was originally an Arcadian town, but was included in the territory of Laconia. (Thuc. . c.) It commanded one of the passes leading into Laconia, by which a portion of the Theban army penetrated into the country on their first invasion under Epaminondas. (Xen. L. c.) It was detached from Sparta by Epaminondas, and added to the territory of Megalopolis. (Paus. viii. 27. § 4.) It appears to have stood on the direct road from Sparta to Megalopolis, either at or near Leondiri, in which position it was originally placed by Leake; and this seems more probable than the site subsequently assigned to it by the same writer, who supposes that both Leuctra and Malea were on the route from Megalopolis to Carnasium. [MALEA.] (Leake, Morea, vol. ii. p. 322, Peloponnesiaca p. 248; Curtius, Peloponnesos, vol. i. p. 336.) LEUCTRUM. [LEUCTRA.] LEUCUS [PYDNA.] LEVI. [PALAESTINA.] LEUNI (Aeûvo), a tribe of the Vindelici, which Ptolemy (ii. 13. § 1) places between the Runicatae and Consuantae. The form of the name has been the subject of discussion; Mannert maintaining that it ought to be written Aaûvot, and that it is the general name of several tribes in those parts, such as the Βενλαΰνοι and 'Αλαυνοί. But nothing cer tain can be said about the matter; and all we know is, that the Leuni must have dwelt at the foot of the Alps of Salzburg, in the south-eastern part of Bavaria. [L.S.] [L. S.] LEVO'NI (Acv@vo), a tribe mentioned by Ptolemy | 8, 11, 15, v. 15; Isa. ii. 13; Hos. xiv. 5-7; Zech. (ii. 11. § 35) as dwelling in the central parts of xi. 1 2). It is, however, chiefly celebrated in sacred the island of Scandia. No further particulars are history for its forests of cedar and fir, from which known about them. (Comp. Zeuss, die Deutschen, the temple of Solomon was constructed and adorned. p. 158.) [L. S.] (1 Kings, v.; 2 Chron. ii.) It is clear from the LEUPHANA (Aevpáva), a town mentioned by sacred history that Mount Lebanon was, in Solomon's Ptolemy (ii. 11. § 27) in the north of Germany, on time, subject to the kings of Tyre; but at a later the west of the Elbe; it probably occupied the site period we find the king of Assyria felling its timber of the modern Lüneburg. (Wilhelm, Germanien, for his military engines (Isa. xiv. 8, xxxvii. 24; p. 161.) [L. S.] Ezek. xxxi. 16); and Diodorus Siculus relates that LEUTERNIA or LEUTARNIA. [LEUCA.] Antigonus, having collected from all quarters hewers LEUTUOANUM, a place in Pannonia Superior, of wood, and sawyers, and shipbuilders, brought 12 Roman miles east of Mursa, on the road from down timber from Libanus to the sea, to build himAquileia to Sirmium (It. Hieros. p. 561); hence it self a navy. Some idea of the extent of its pine seems to be identical with the place called Ad La- forests may be formed from the fact recorded by this bores in the Peuting. Table. historian, that 8000 men were employed in felling and sawing it, and 1000 beasts in transporting it to its destination. He correctly describes the mountain as extending along the coast of Tripoli and Byblius, as far as Sidon, abounding in cedars, and firs, and cypresses, of marvellous size and beauty (xix. 58); and it is singular that the other classical geographers were wholly mistaken as to the course of this remarkable mountain chain, both Ptolemy (v. 15) and Strabo (xvi. p. 755) representing the two almost parallel ranges of Libanus and Antilibanus as commencing near the sea and running from west to east, in the direction of Damascus,-Libanus on the north and Antilibanus on the south; and it is remarkable that the Septuagint translators, apparently under the same erroneous idea, frequently translate the Hebrew word Lebanon by 'Avτiλíbavos (e. g. Deut. i. 7, iii. 25, xi. 24; Josh. i. 4, ix. 1). Their relative position is correctly stated by Eusebius and St. Jerome (s. v. Antilibanus), who place Antilibanus to the east of Libanus and in the vicinity of Damascus. [ANTILIBANUS.] LEXO'VII (Angócio, Strab. p. 189; Antoúbio, Ptol. ii. 8. § 2), a Celtic people, on the coast of Gallia, immediately west of the mouth of the Seine. When the Veneti and their neighbours were preparing for Caesar's attack (B. c. 56), they applied for aid to the Osismi, Lexovii, Nannetes, and others. (B. G. iii. 9, 11.) Caesar sent Sabinus against the Ünelli, Curiosolites, and Lexovii, to prevent their joining the Veneti. A few days after Sabinus reached the country of the Unelli, the Aulerci Euburovices and the Lexovii murdered their council or senate, as Caesar calls it, because they were against the war; and they joined Viridovix, the chief of the Unelli. The Gallic confederates were defeated by Sabinus, and compelled to surrender. (B. G. iii. 17 -19.) The Lexovii took part in the great rising of the Galli against Caesar (B. C. 52); but their force was only 3000 men. (B. G. vii. 75.) Walckenaer supposes that the territory of the Lexovii of Caesar and Ptolemy comprised both the territories of Lisieux and Bayeux, though there was a people in Bayeux named Baiocasses; and he further supposes that these Baiocasses and the Viducasses were dependent on the Lexovii, and within their territorial limits. [BAIOCASSES.] The capital of the Lexovii, or Civitas Lexoviorum, as it is called in the Notit. Provinc., is Lisieux, in the French department of Calvados. [NOVIOMAGUS.] The country of the Lexovii was one of the parts of Gallia from which the passage to Britain was made. [G. L.] LIBA (Alba), a small place in Mesopotamia, mentioned by Polybius (v. 51) on the march of Antiochus. It was probably situated on the road between Nisibis and the Tigris. [V.] LIBA'NUS MONS (Aíbavos õpos), in Hebrew LEBANON (?), a celebrated mountain range of Syria, or, as St. Jerome truly terins it, "mons Phoenices altissimus." (Onomast. s. v.) Its name is derived from the root 12, "to be white," as St. Jerome also remarks, "Libanus Aeuкaσμs, id est, 'candor' interpretatur" (Adv. Jovinianum, tom. iv. col. 172): and white it is, "both in summer and v.inter; in the former season on account of the natural colour of the barren rock, and in the latter by reason of the snow," which indeed "remains in some places, near the summit, throughout the year." (Irby and Mangles, Oct. 30 and Nov. 1.) Allusion is made to its snows in Jer. xviii. 14; and it is described by Tacitus as tantos inter ardores opacum fidumque nivibus." (Hist. v. 6.) Lebanon is much celebrated both in sacred and classical writers, and, in particular, much of the sublime imagery of the prophets of the Old Testament is borrowed from this moun Lebanon itself may be said to commence on the north of the river Leontes (el-Kâsimiyeh), between Tyre and Sidon; it follows the course of the coast of the Mediterranean towards the north, which in some places washes its base, and in others is separated from it by a plain varying in extent: the mountain attains its highest elevation (nearly 12,000 feet) about half way between Beirut and Tripoli. It is now called by various names, after the tribes by whom it is peopled,—the southern part being inhabited by the Metowili; to the north of whom, as far as the road from Beirut to Damascus, are the Druses; the Maronites occupying the northern parts, and in particular the district called Kesrawan. Robinson, Bibl. Res. vol. iii. p. 459; Burckhardt, Syria, pp. 182-209) It still answers, in part at least, to the description of St. Jerome, being " fertilissimus et virens," though it can be no longer said "densissimis arborum comis protegitur" (Comment. in Osee, c. xiv.): and again,-" Nihil Libano in terra repronissionis excelsius est, nec nemorosius atque condensius." (Comment. in Zacharian, c. xi.) It is now chiefly fruitful in vines and mulberry trees; the former celebrated from of old (Hos. xiv. 7), the latter introduced with the cultivation of the silkworm in comparatively modern times. Its extensive pine forests have entirely disappeared, or are now represented by small clusters of firs of no imposing growth, scattered over the mountain in those parts where the soft sandstone (here of a reddish hue) comes out from between the Jura limestone, which is the prevailing formation of the mountain. The cedars so renowned in ancient times, and known to are found principally towards the north of the range The only two torrents which could have effected such havoc as that described by Pausanias are the rivers of Platamóna and Litokhoro. As the former was near Heracleia, it may be concluded that the Sus, was the same river as the Enipeus, and that Libethra was situated not far from its junction with the sea, as the upper parts of the slope towards Litókhoro, are secured from the ravages of the torrent by their elevation above its bank. It might be supposed, from the resemblance, that the modern Malathria [DIUM] is a corruption of the ancient Libethra: the similarity is to be attributed, perhaps, to the two names having a common origin in some word of the ancient language of Macedonia. (Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iii. pp. 413, 422.) Strabo (ix. p. 409, x. p. 471) alludes to this place when speaking of Helicon, and remarks that several places around that mountain, attested the former existence of the Pierian Thracians in the Boeotian districts. Along with the worship of the Muses the names of mountains, caves, and springs, were transferred from Mt. Olympus to Helicon; hence they were surnamed Libethrides as well as Pierides ("Nymphae, noster amor, Libethrides," Virg. Ecl. vii. 21). [E. B. J.] LIBE THRIAS, LIBE'THRIUS. [HELICON.] LI'BIA. [AUTRIGONES.] LIBICI or LIBICI (Λεβέκιοι, Pol.; Λιβικοί, Ptol.), a tribe of Cisalpine Gauls, who inhabited the part of Gallia Transpadana about the river Sesia and the neighbourhood of Vercellae. They are first mentioned by Polybius (ii. 17), who places them, together with the LAEVI (Ado), towards the sources of the Padus, and W. of the Insubres. This statement is sufficiently vague: a more precise clue to their position is supplied by Pliny and Ptolemy, both of whom notice Vercellae as their chief city, to which the latter adds Laumellum also. (Plin. iii. 17. s. 21; Ptol. iii. 1. § 36.) Pliny expressly tells us that they were descended from the Sallyes, a people of Ligurian race; whence it would appear probable that the Libicii as well as the Laevi were Ligurian, and not Gaulish tribes [LAEVI], though settled on the N. side of the Padus Livy also speaks, but in a passage of which the reading is very uncertain (v. 35), of the Salluvii (the saine people with the Sallyes) as crossing the Alps, and settling in Gaul near the Lavi. [E. H. B.] LIBARNA (Ai6apva), a city of Liguria, which is mentioned by Pliny among the "nobilia oppida" that adorned the interior of that province, as well as by Ptolemy and the Itineraries, in which its name appears as "Libarnum" or "Libarium." (Plin. iii. 5. s. 7; Ptol. iii. 1. § 45; Itin. Ant. p. 294; Tab. Peut.) These place it on the road from Genua to Dertona, but the distances given are certainly corrupt, and therefore afford no clue to the position of the town. This has, however, been of late years established beyond doubt by the discovery of its remains on the left bank of the Scrivia, between Arquata and Serravalle. The traces still visible of its ancient theatre, forum, and aqueducts, confirin Pliny's statement of its flourishing condition; which is further attested by several inscriptions, from one of which it would appear to have enjoyed colonial rank. (S. Quintino, Antica Colonia di Libarna, in the Mem. dell' Accadem. di Torino, vol. xxix. p. 143; Aldini, Lapidi Ticinesi, pp. 120, 139.) [E. H. B.] LIBETHRA, LIBETHRUM (Ai6n0pa: Eth. Anopios), a town of Macedonia in the neighbourhood of Dium. It is mentioned by Livy (xliv. 5), who, after describing the perilous march of the Roman army under Q. Marcius through a pass in the chain of Olympus,-CALLIPEUCE (the lower part of the ravine of Platamóna),-says, that after four days of extreme labour, they reached the plain between Libethrum and Heracleia. Pausanias (ix. 30. § 9) reports a tradition that the town was once destroyed. 'Libethra," he says, .6 was situated LIBISO'SONA (cognoinine Foroaugustana, Plin. on Mount Olympus, on the side of Macedonia. At no iii. 3. s. 4;. Inser. up. Gruter, p. 260. no. 3; Libigreat distance from it stood the tomb of Orpheus, sona, Coins, ap. Sestini, p. 168; Libisosia, Itin. respecting which an oracle had declared that when Ant. p. 446; Aibiσwka, Ptol. ii. 6. § 59; Lebithe sun beheld the bones of the poet the city should nosa, Geog. Rav. iv. 44: Lezuza), a city of the be destroyed by a boar (vno ovós). The inhabitants Oretani, in Hispania Tarraconensis, 14 M. P. NE. of Libethra ridiculed the thing as impossible; but of the sources of the Anas, on the high-road from the column of Orpheus's monument having been Laminium to Caesaraugusta. It was an important accidentally broken, a gap was made by which light place of trade, and, under the Romans, a colony, broke in upon the tomb, when the same night the belonging to the conventus of Caesaraugusta (Plin. torrent named Sus, being prodigiously swollen, rushed. c.; Ukert, vol. ii. pt. 1. pp. 411, 412). [P. S.] down with violence from Mt. Olympus upon Li- LIENATH (Λεβνά, Λοβνά), generally mentioned bethra, overthrowing the walls and all the public in connection with Lachish, from which it could not and private buildings, and destroying every living be far distant [LACHISH]. (Josh. x. 29-32; 2 Kings, creature in its furious course. After this calamity xix. 8.) It belonged to Judah (Josh. xv. 42), and the remains of Orpheus were removed to Dium, is recognised by Eusebius as a village in the dis20 stadia distant from their city towards Olym-trict of Eleutheropolis. (Onomast. s. v. Aobará.) pus, where they erected a monument to him, con- Dr. Robinson could not succeed in recovering any sisting of an urn of stone upon a column." In the traces of its name or site (Bib. Res. vol. ii. p. time of Alexander the Great there was a statue of 389). [G. W.] Orpheus made of cypress, at Linethra. (Plut. LI'BNIUS, a river in Ireland, mentioned by PtoAlex. 14.) lemy (ii. 2. §4) as on the west coast, = the river that falls into Sligo Bay Killala Bay? Black Sod Bay? Clew Bay? For the elements of uncertainty see VENNICNII, RHOBOGDII, and IBERNIA. [R. G. L.] LIBORA. [AEBURA.] LIBRIA or LIRIA, a river of Gallia Narbonensis, which Pliny (iii. 4) mentions after the Arauris (Hérault), and his description proceeds from west to east. It is said (Harduin's Pliny) that all the MSS. have the reading "Libria." Harduin takes the Libria to be the Lez, but this is the Ledus. [LEDUS.] It has been conjectured that the Libria is the Livron, though this river is west of the Arauris. [G. L.] LIBUI. [LIBICI.] LIBUM (Ai6ov), a town in Bithynia, distant according to the Itin. Anton. 23, and according to the Itin. Hier. 20 miles N. of Nicaena. (Liban. Vit. suae, p. 24.) [L. S.] LIBUNCAE. [GALLAECIA, p. 934, b.] LIBURNI (ASupvol, Scyl. p. 7; Strab. vi. p. 269, vii. p. 317; Appian, Ill. 12; Steph. B.; Schol. ad Nicand. 607 Pomp. Mela, ii. 3. § 12; Plin. iii. 25; Flor. ii. 5), a people who occupied the N. part of Illyricum, or the district called LIBURNIA (Λιβυρνὶς χώρα, Scyl. p. 7: Λιβουρνία, Ptol. ii. 16. § 8, viii. 7. § 7; Plin. iii. 6, 23, 26; Peut. Tab.; Orelli, Inscr. n. 664). The Liburnians were an ancient people, who, together with the Siculians, had occupied the opposite coast of Picenum; they had a city there, Truentum, which had continued in existence amid all the changes of the population (Plin. iii. 18). Niebuhr (Hist. of Rome, vol. i. p. 50, trans.) has conjectured that they were a Pelasgian race. However this may be, it is certain that at the time when the historical accounts of these coasts begin they were very extensively diffused. Corcyra, before the Greeks took possession of it, was peopled by them. (Strab. vi. p. 269.) So was Issa and the neighbouring islands. (Schol. ad Apollon. iv. 564.) They were also considerably extended to the N., for Noricum, it is evident, had been previously inhabited by Liburnian tribes; for the Vindelicians were Liburnians (Serv. ad Virg. Aen. i. 243), and Strab (iv. p. 206) makes a distinction between them and the Breuni and Genauni, whom he calls Illyrians. The words of Virgil (l. c.), too, seem distinctly to term the Veneti Liburnians, for the "innermost realm of the Liburnians" must have been the goal at which Antenor is said to have arrived. Driven out from the countries between Pannonia and the Veneti by the Gallic invasion, they were compressed within the district from the Titius to the Arsia, which assumed the title of Liburnia. A wild and piratical race (Liv. x. 2), they used privateers (lembi," naves Liburnicae") with one very large lateen sail, which, adopted by the Romans in their struggle with Carthage (Eutrop. ii. 22) and in the Second Macedonian War (Liv. xlii. 48), supplanted gradually the high-bulwarked galleys which had formerly been in use. (Caes. B. C. iii. 5; Hor. Epod. i. 1.) Liburnia was afterwards incorporated with the province of Dalmatia, and IADERA, its capital, was made a Roman colony. In A. D. 634 Heraclius invited the Chorvates or Chrobati, who lived on the N. side of the Carpathians, in what is now S. Poland or Gallicia, to occupy the province as vassals of the Empire (Const. Porph. de Adm. Imp. c. 31). This connection with the Byzantine Court, and their occupation of countries which had embraced Christianity in the Apostolic age (Titus was in Dalmatia | turally led to the conversion of these Slavonian strangers as early as the 7th century. (Comp. Schafarik, Slav. Alt. vol. ii. pp. 277-309; Neigebaur, Die Sud-Slaven, pp. 224-244.) Strabo (vi. p. 315) extends the coast-line of Liburnia as far as 1500 stadia; their chief cities were IADERA and the "conventus" or congress of SCARDONA, at which the inhabitants of fourteen towns assembled (Plin. iii. 25). Besides these, Pliny (7. c.) enumerates the following:- Alvona, Flanona, Tarsatica, Senia, Lopsica, Ortopula, Vegium, Argyruntum, Corinium, Aenona, and Civitas Pasini. [E. B. J.] LIBU'RNICAE INSULAE. [ILLYRICUM.] LIBURNUM or LIBURNI PORTUS, a seaport on the coast of Etruria, a little to the S. of the Portus Pisanus, near the mouth of the Arnus, now called Livorno. The ancient authorities for the existence of a port on the site of this now celebrated seaport are discussed under PORTUS PISANUS. [E. H. B.] LIBURNUS MONS, a mountain in Apulia, mentioned only by Polybius, in his description of Hannibal's march into that country, B. C. 217 (Pol. iii. 100), from which it appears to have been the name of a part of the Apennines on the frontiers of Samnium and Apulia, not far from Luceria; but it cannot be more precisely identified. [E. H. B.] LI'BYA ( Asun), was the general appellation given by the more ancient cosmographers and historians to that portion of the old continent which lay between Aegypt, Aethiopia, and the shores of the Atlantic, and which was bounded to the N. by the Mediterranean sea, and to the S. by the river Oceanus. With the increase of geographical knowledge, the latter mythical boundary gave place to the equatorial line: but the actual form and dimensions of Africa were not ascertained until the close of the 15th century A. D.; when, in the year 1497, the Portuguese doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and verified the assertion of Herodotus (iv. 42), that Libya, except at the isthmus of Suez, was surrounded by water. From the Libya of the ancients we must substract such portions as have already been described, or will hereafter be mentioned, in the articles entitled AEGYPTUS, AETHIOPIA, AFRICA, ATLAS, BARCA, CARTHAGE, CYRENE, MARMARICA, MAURETANIA, the OASES, SYRTES, &c. Including these districts, indeed, the boundaries of Libya are the same with those of modern Africa as far as the equator. The limits, however, of Libya Interior, as opposed to the Aegyptian, Aethiopian, Phoenician, Grecian, and Roman kingdoms and commonwealths, were much narrower and less distinct. The Nile and the Atlantic Ocean bounded it respectively on the east and west; but to the north and south its frontiers were less accurately traced. Some geographers, as Ptolemy, conceived that the south of Libya joined the east of Asia, and that the In. dian Ocean was a vast salt lake: others, like Agatharchides, and the Alexandrian writers generally, maintained that it stretched to the equator, and they gave to the unknown regions southward of that line the general title of Agisymba. We shall be assisted in forming a just conception of Libya Interior by tracing the progress of ancient discovery in those regions. Progress of Discovery. The Libya of Homer (Od. iv. 87, xiv. 295) and Hesiod (Theog. 739; comp. Strab. i. p. 29) comprised all that portion of the African continent which lay west of Lower and Middle Aegypt. They knew it by report only, had The events of the Jugurthine War (B. c. 111— 106) led the Romans further into the interior. The historian Sallust, when praetor of Numidia, assiduously collected information respecting the indigenous races of Libya. He mentions the Gaetuli as the rude Aborigines, who fed on the flesh of wild beasts, and on the roots of the earth. They dwelt near the torrid zone (“ haud procul ab ardoribus "), and their huts (mapalia) resembled inverted boats. In B. C. 24, Aelius Gallus conducted, by the command of Augustus, an expedition into Aethiopia and Nubia, and extended the knowledge of the eastern districts. The difficulties of the road and the treachery of his guides, indeed, rendered his attempt unprosperous; but in the year following, Petronius repulsed an inroad of the Aethiopians, and established a line of military posts south of Elephantine (Strab. xvii. p. 615; Dion Cass. liv. 6). In B. c. 19, L. Cornelius Balbus attacked the Garamantes with success, and ascertained the names at least of many of their towns. (Flor. iv. 12; Plin. v. 75.) The information then acquired was employed by Strabo in his account of Libya. Again, in Nero's reign, an exploring party was despatched to the Abyssinian highlands with a view of discovering the sources of the Nile. (Plin. vi. 32; Senec. Nat. Quaest. vi. 8.) habitants the general name of Aethiopes, the dark | Ιππών, Ταβρακά, Χαλχεία, Βύζαντες; comp. Gosse or black coloured men. Between B. C. 630-620, | lin, Récherches sur les Géographie Ancienne, tom. ii Battus of Thera, being commanded by the oracle to pp. 1-30). lead a colony into Libya, inquired anxiously "where Libya was," although at that time the position of Aegypt, and probably that of the Phoenician Carthage also, was well known to the Greeks. Hence we may conclude that, in the 7th century B. C., the name Libya, as the generic appellation of a continent within sight of Sicily, and within a few days' sail from Peloponnesus, was either partially adopted by or wholly unknown to the Greeks. The Phoenicians were among the first explorers, as they were among the earliest colonisers of Libya; but they concealed their knowledge of it with true commercial jealousy, and even as late as the 6th century B. C. interdicted the Roman and Etruscan mariners from sailing beyond the Fair Promontory. (Polyb. iii. 22.) About sixty years before the journey of Herodotus to Aegypt, i. e. B. c. 523, Cambyses explored a portion of the western desert that lies beyond Elephantine; but his expedition was too brief and disastrous to afford any extension of geographical acquaintance with the interior. Herodotus is the first traveller whose accounts of Libya are in any way distinct or to be relied upon; and his information was probably derived, in great measure, from the caravan guides with whom he conversed at Memphis or Naucratis in the Delta. By the term Libya, Herodotus understood sometimes the whole of ancient Africa (iv. 42), sometimes Africa exclusive of Aegypt (ii. 17, 18, iv. 167). He defined its proper eastern boundary to be the isthmus of Suez and the Red sea, in opposition to those who placed it along the western bank of the Nile. In this opinion he is supported by Strabo (i. pp. 86, 174) and Ptolemy (ii. 1. § 6, iv. 5. §47); and his description of the Great Desert and other features of the interior prove that his narrative generally rests upon the evidence of travellers in that region. The next step in discovery was made by the Macedonian kings of Aegypt. They not only required gold, precious stones, ivory, and aromatics, for luxury and art, and elephants for their wars, but were also actuated by a zeal for the promotion of science. Accordingly, Ptoleiny Philadelphus (Diod. i. 37; Plin. vi. 29) and Ptolemy Euergetes (B. C. 283 -222) sent forth expeditions to the coast and mouth of the Red sea, and into the modern Nubia Their investigations, however, tended more to extending acquaintance with the country between the cataracts of the Nile and the straits of Bab-elMandeb than to the examination of Western Libya. About 200 years before our era, Eratosthenes described Libya, but rather as a mathematician than a geographer. He defines it to be an acute angled triangle, of which the base was the Mediterranean, and the sides the Red sea, on the east, and on the west an imaginary line drawn from the Pillars of Hercules to the Sinus Adulitanus. The wars of Rome with Carthage, and the destruction of that city in B. C. 146, tended considerably to promote a clearer acquaintance with Libya Interior. Polybius, commissioned by his friend and commander, Scipio Aemilianus, visited Aegypt and many districts of the northern coast of Africa, and explored its western shores also, as far as the river Bambotus, perhaps Cape Non, lat. 28° N., where he found the crocodile and hippopotamus. Unfortunately, the record of his journey has perished, although it was extant in the 1st century A. D., and is cited by Pliny (vi. 1) and Stephanus of Byzantium (s. vv But the Romans became acquainted with portions of the Libyan desert, less through regular attempts to penetrate it on either side, than from their desire to procure wild beasts for the amphitheatre. Under the emperors, especially, the passion for exhibiting rare animals prevailed; nor have we reason to suspect that these were found in the cultivated northern provinces, whence they must have been driven by the colonial herdsmen and farmers, even while Cyrene and Carthage were independent states. At the secular games exhibited by the emperor Philip the Arabian (A. D. 248), an incredible number of Libyan wild beasts were slaughtered in the arena, and the Roman hunters who collected them must have visited the Sahăra at least, and the southern slope of Atlas: nor, since the hippopotamus and the alligator are mentioned, is it improbable that they even reached the banks of the Senegal. Of all the ancient geographers, however, Claudius Ptolemy, who flourished in the second century A.D., displays the most accurate and various acquaintance with Libya Interior. Yet, with the works of his predecessors before him, the scientific labours of the Alexandrians, and the Roman surveys, Ptolemy possessed a very inadequate knowledge of the form and extent of this continent. His tables show that its western coast had been explored as far as 11° lat. N.; and he was aware of the approximate position of the Fortunate Islands (now the Canaries), since from them, or some point in them, he calculates all his eastern distances or longitudes. He was also better acquainted than any of his precursors with the eastern coast, and with the tracts which intervened between the left bank of the Nile and the Great Desert. He mentions an expedition conducted by a Roman officer named Maternus, who, setting forth from Tripoli, advanced as far southward as the neighbourhood of the lake Tchad, and, perhaps, even of Timbuctoo. He has also given, with probable correctness, the position of a number of places in the interior, along a river which he calls |