its votes; taxation and other public duties were regulated on the same principle. In former times, the deputies constituting the congress had also decided upon peace, war, and alliances; but this of course ceased when Lycia acknowledged the supre macy of Rome. This happy constitution lasted until the time of the emperor Claudius, when Lycia became a Roman province, as is mentioned below. (Strab. xiv. p. 664, &c.) The laws and customs of the Lycians are said by Herodotus to have been partly Carian and partly Cretan; but in one point they differed from all other men, for they derived their names from their mothers and not from their fathers, and when any one was asked to give an account of his parentage, he enumerated his mother, grandmother, great grandmother, &c. (Herod. i. 173.) Herodotus (vii. 92), in describing their armour, mentions in particular, hats with plumes, greaves, short swords, and sickles. Respecting the religion of the Lycians nothing is known, except that they worshipped Apollo, especially at Patara; but whether this was the Greek Apollo, or a Lycian god identified with him, cannot be said with certainty; though the former is more probable, if we attach any value to the story of Patarus. [Dict. of Biogr. 8. v.] This would show that the Greeks of Asia Minor exercised considerable influence upon the Lycians at a very early period.

5. Literature and the Arts. - Although we have no mention of any works in the Lycian language, it cannot be doubted that the Lycians either had, or at least might have had, a literature, as they had a peculiar alphabet of their own, and made frequent use of it in inscriptions. The mere fact, however, that many of these inscriptions are engraven in two languages, the Lycian and Greek, shows that the latter language had become so familiar to the people that it was thought desirable, or even necessary, to employ it along with the vernacular in public decrees and laws about and after the time of the Persian wars; and it must have been this circumstance that stopped or prevented the development of a national literature in Lycia. The influence of Greek litera. ture is also attested by the theatres which existed in almost every town, and in which Greek plays must have been performed, and have been understood and enjoyed by the people. In the arts of sculpture and architecture, the Lycians attained a degree of perfection but little inferior to that of the Greeks. Their temples and tombs abound in the finest sculptures, representing mythological subjects, or events of their own military history. Their architecture, especially that of their tombs and sarcophagi, has quite a peculiar character, so much so that travellers are thereby enabled to distinguish whether any given place is really Lycian or not. These sarcophagi are surmounted by a structure with pointed arches, and richly decorated with sculptures. One of these has been brought to this country by Sir C. Fellows, and may now be seen in the British Museum. The entrances of the numerous tombs cut in the faces of lofty rocks are formed in the same way, presenting at the top a pointed arch, which has led Sir C. Fellows to compare them to Gothic or Elizabethan architecture. If we examine the remains of their towns, as figured in the works of Sir C. Fellows, Texier, and Forbes and Spratt, we cannot avoid coming to the conclusion that, all the arts of civilised life, the Lycians, though barbarians, were little inferior to the Greeks.

6. History.-Lycia and the Lycians act rather a

prominent part in the Homeric account of the Trojan War, where they are described as the allies of the Trojans. Sarpedon and Glaucus, are the two Lycian heroes in the war; but the poet was familiar also with the earlier legends of Lycia,--as that about Bellerophon, which he introduces into the parley between Glaucus and Dioinede. Pandarus, another hero on the side of the Trojans, came from a district about the river Aesepus, which was likewise called Lycia, and which was supposed by the ancient commentators to have been peopled by colonists from Lycia, the subject of this article (Il. ii. 824, &c., iv. 91, v. 105; comp. Strab. xii. p. 572, xiii. p. 585); but both history and tradition are silent as to the time when, and the circumstances under which, Lycians settled in Troas. During the period from the Trojan times down to the Lydian conquests under Croesus, the Lycians are not mentioned in history; but that conqueror, who was successful in all other parts of Asia Minor, failed in his attempts upon the Lycians and Cilicians. (Herod. i. 28.) When Cyrus overthrew the Lydian monarchy, and his general Harpagus invaded the plain of the Xanthus, the Lycians offered a determined resistance; but when, in the end, they found their situation hopeless, the men of Xanthus assembled in the citadel their women, children, slaves, and treasures, and then set fire to it. They themselves then renewed the fight against the enemy, but all perished, except a few Xanthians who happened to be absent during the battle. [XANTHUS.] Lycia thus became a part of the Persian monarchy, but, like all Persian provinces, retained its own constitution, being obliged only to pay tribute and furnish its contingents to the Persian army. The Lycians joined in the revolt of the Asiatic Greeks, but afterwards were reduced, and Darius made the country a part of his first satrapy (Herod. iii. 90); the fact that the Lycians furnished fifty ships to the fleet of Xerxes (Herod. vii. 92) shows,that they still continued to be a prosperous and powerful people. Their armour on that occasion is described by Herodotus, and was the same as that noticed above. During the Peloponnesian War the Lycians are not mentioned; but as Rhodes was tributary to Athens, and as contributions were often levied as far as Aspendus, it is not improbable that Lycia may have been compelled to pay similar contributions. Alexander traversed a part of the country on his march from Caria into Pisidia and Phrygia, and reduced it under his sway. The Lycians on that occasion offered little or no resistance to the young conqueror; the cities of Xanthus, Pinara, Patara, and about thirty other smaller towns, surrendered to him without a blow. (Arrian, Anab. i. 24.) In the division of the Macedonian empire, Lycia successively came under the dominion of the Ptolemies and the Seleucidae; and then, after a brief interval, during which the Lycians enjoyed their full freedom, they fell under the dominion of Rome : for after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, Lycia was ceded by the Roman senate to the Rhodians; but the Lycians, indignant at being considered the subjects of the islanders, and being secretly supported by Eumenes, resisted the Rhodian authorities by force of arms. In this contest they were overpowered; but the Romans, displeased with the Rhodians for their conduct in the Macedonian War, interfered, and restored the Lycians to independence. (Polyb. xxii. 7, xxiii. 3, xxvi. 7, xxx. 5; Liv. xlv. 25; Appian, Mithr. 61, &c., Syr. 44.) It was apparently during the period which now followed,

that Lycia enjoyed its highest degree of prosperity, for under the protection of Rome the people had sufficient leisure to attend to their own internal affairs. By a strict and wise neutrality, they escaped the dangers of the Mithridatic Wars as well as those of the wars against the pirates. (Appian, Mithrid. 24, 61; Strab. xvi. p. 665.) The prosperity of Lycia, however, received a severe blow during the war of Brutus and Cassius, who attacked the country because it was suspected to favour the party of Octavianus and Antony. When Brutus advanced against Xanthus, the inhabitants razed the suburbs to the ground, and offered the most determinate resistance. After a long and desperate siege, the soldiers of Brutas gained admission by treachery, whereupon the Xanthians made away with themselves by setting fire to their city. The fall of Xanthus was followed by the surrender of Patara and the whole Lycian nation. Brutus levied enornous contributions, and in some instances ordered the inhabitants to give up all their gold and silver. (Appian, B. C. iv. 60, 65, 75, &c.) Antony afterwards granted the Lycians exemption from taxes, in consideration of their sufferings, and exhorted them to rebuild the city of Xanthus. (Ibid. v. 7; comp. Dion Cass. xlvii. 34.) But after this time the prosperity of Lycia was gone, and internal dissensions in the end also deprived the inhabitants of their ancient and free constitution; for the emperor Claudius made the country a Roman province, forming part of the prefecture of Pamphylia. (Dion Cass. Ix. 17; Suet. Claud. 25.) Pliny (v. 28) states that Lycia once contained seventy towns, but that in his time their number was reduced to twenty-six. Ptolemy (v. 3), indeed, describes Lycia as a separate province; but it is probable that until the time of Theodosius II. it remained united with Pamphylia, for an inscription (Gruter, Thesaur. p. 458. 6) mentions Porcius as procos. Lyciae et Pamphyliae," and both countries had only one governor as late as the reign of Constantine. But Theodosius constituted Lycia a separate province; and so it also appears in the seventh century in Hierocles (p. 682, &c.), with Myra for its capital.

LYCO or LYCON, a small town of Hispania Baetica, mentioned only by Livy (xxxvii. 47). [P.S.] LY'COA (Avкóa: Eth. Avкoáтns), a town of Arcadia in the district Maenalia, at the foot of Mt. Maenalus, with a temple of Artemis Lycoatis. It was in ruins in the time of Pausanias, and is represented by the Paleokastron between Arachova and Karteroli. (Paus. viii. 3. § 4, 36. § 7; Steph. B. s. v.; Leake, Morea, vol. ii. p. 52; Boblaye, Récherches, fc. p. 171; Ross, Reisen im Peloponnes, p. 120; Curtius, Peloponnesos, vol. i. p. 358.) There was another Lycoa not far from the Alpheius, near its junction with the Lusius or Gortynius, at the foot of Mt. Lycaeus. (Pol. xvi. 17.) It has been conjectured that the proper name of the latter of these towns was Lycaea, since Pausanias (viii. 27. § 4) speaks of the Lycaeatae (Avkaιâтai) as a people in the district of Cynuria, and Stephanus mentions a town Lycaea (Aúkaia). (Leake, Morea, vol. ii. p. 304.)

LYCO'NE (AUкúvŋ), a mountain of Argolis, on the road from Argos to Tegea. (Paus. ii. 24. § 6.) [See Vol. I. p. 201, b.]

LYCO'POLIS (ỷ Aúкwv móλis, Ptol. iv. 5. § 63; Steph. B. s. v.; Strab. xvii. p. 813 Lycon. Plin. v. 9. s. 11; Lyco, Itin. Anton. p. 157: Eth. AUкOTOAirns), the name of two cities in Aegypt.

1. In the Thebaid, the capital of the nome Lycopolites, SE. of Hermopolis, in lat. 27° 10′ 14" N.: the modern E' Syout. It was seated on the western bank of the Nile. The shield of a king named Recamai, who reigned in Upper Egypt, probably during the shepherd dynasty in the Lower Country, has been discovered here. (Rosellini, Mon. Civ. i. 81.) Lycopolis has no remarkable ruins, but in the excavated chambers of the adjacent rocks are found mummies of wolves, confirming the origin of its name, as well as a tradition preserved by Diodorus (ii. 88; comp. Aelian. Hist. An. x. 28), to the effect that an Aethiopian army, invading Aegypt, was repelled beyond the city of Elephantine by herds of wolves. Osiris was worshipped under the symbol of a wolf at Lycopolis: he having, according to a myth, come from the shades under that form, to aid Isis and Horus in their combat with Typhon. (Champollion, Descript. de l'Egypte, vol. i. p. 276; Jollois, Egypte, vol. ii. ch. 13.)

town in the Sebennytic nome, in the neighbourhood of Mendes, and, from its appellation, apparently founded by a colony of Osirian priests from Upper Egypt. The Deltaic Lycopolis was the birthplace of the Neo-Platonic philosopher Plotinus, A. D. 205. (Suidas, p. 3015.) [W. B. D.]

R

COIN OF LYCIA.

JAYKION

LYCOREIA. DELPHI, p. 768.] LYCOSURA (Λυκόσουρα : Εth. Λυκοσουρεύς), a town of Arcadia, in the district Parrhasia, at the foot of Mt. Lycaeus, and near the river Plataniston (Gastritzi), on the road from Megalopolis to Phigaleia. It is called by Pausanias the most ancient town in Greece, and is said to have been founded by Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus. It was in ruins in the time of Pausanias, since its inhabitants had been transplanted to Megalopolis upon the foundation of the latter. The remains of this town were first discovered by Dodwell, near the village of Stala, and have since been more accurately described by Ross. The ruins are called Palaeokrambavos or Siderokastron. (Paus. viii. 2. § 1, viii. 4. § 5, viii. 38. §1; Dodwell, Travels in Greece, vol. ii. p. 395; Leake, Morec vol. ii. p. 312; Ross, Reisen im Pelo

ponnes, p. 87; Curtius, Peloponnesos, vol. i. p. 295.)

The

LYCTUS, LYTTUS (AUKTOS, AUTTOS: Eth. AUKTIOS, AUTTIOs, Ptol. iii. 17. § 10), one of the most considerable cities in Crete, which appears in the Homeric catalogue. (I. ii. 647, xvii. 611.) According to the Hesiodic Theogony (Theog. 477), Rhea gave birth to Zeus in a cave of Mt. Aegaeon, near Lyctus. The inhabitants of this ancient Doric city called themselves colonists of Sparta (Arist. Pol. ii. 7), and the worship of Apollo appears to have prevailed there. (Callim. Hymn. Apoll. 33; comp. Müller, Dorians, vol. i. pp. 141, 227, trans.) In B. C. 344, Phalaecus the Phocian assisted the Cnossians against their neighbours the Lyctians, and took the city of Lyctus, from which he was driven out by Archidamus, king of Sparta. (Diod. xvi. 62.) The Lyctians, at a still later period, were engaged in frequent hostilities with Cnossus, and succeeded in creating a formidable party in the island against that city. The Cnossians, taking advantage of their absence on a distant expedition, surprised Lyctus, and utterly destroyed it. citizens, on their return, abandoned it, and found refuge at Lampa. Polybius (iv. 53, 54), on this occasion, bears testimony to the high character of the Lyctians, as compared with their countrymen. They afterwards recovered their city by the aid of the Gortynians, who gave them a place called Diatonium, which they had taken from the Cnossians. (Polyb. xxiii. 15, xxiv. 53.) Lyctus was sacked by Metellus at the Roman conquest (Liv. Epit. xcix.; Flor. iii. 7), but was existing in the time of Strabo (x. p. 479) at a distance of 80 stadia from the Libyan sea. (Strab. p. 476; comp. Steph. B. 8. v.; Scyl. p. 18; Plin. iv. 12; Hesych. 8. v. Kapvnaobaois; Hierocl.) The site still bears the name of Lýtto, where ancient remains are now found. (Pashley, Trav. vol. i. p. 269.) In the 16th century, the Venetian MS. (Mus. Class. Ant. vol. ii. p. 274) describes the walls of the ancient city, with circular bastions, and other fortifications, as existing upon a lofty mountain, nearly in the centre of the island. Numerous vestiges of ancient structures, tombs, and broken marbles, are seen, as well as an immense arch of an aqueduct, by which the water was carried across a deep valley by means of a large marble channel. The town of ARSINOE and the harbour of CHERSONESUS are assigned to Lyctus. The type on its coins is usually an eagle flying, with the epigraph ATTTION. (Eckhel, vol. ii. p. 316; Höck, Kreta, vol. i. pp. 13, 408, vol. ii. pp. 431, 446, vol. iii. pp. 430, 465, 508.) [E. B. J.]

COIN OF LYCTUS.

LYCUS (Aukos), is the name of a great many rivers, especially in Asia, and seems to have originated in the impression made upon the mind of the beholder by a torrent rushing down the side of a hill, which suggested the idea of a wolf rushing at his prey. The following rivers of this name occur in Asia Minor:

1. The Lycus of Bithynia: it flows in the east of Bithynia in a western direction, and empties itself into the Euxine a little to the south of Heraccia Pontica, which was twenty stadia distant from it. The breadth of the river is stated to have been two plethra, and the plain near its mouth bore the name of Campus Lycaeus. (Scylax, p. 34; Orph. Argon. 720; Arrian, Peripl. p. 14; Anonym. Peripl. p. 3; Xenoph. Anab. vi. 2. § 3; Ov. Epist. ex Pont. x. 47; Memnon, ap. Phot. 51; Plin. vi. 1, who erroneously states that Heracleia was situated on (appositum) the river.)

2. The Lycus of Cilicia is mentioned only by Pliny (v. 22) as flowing between the Pyramus and Pinarus.

3. The Lycus of Lydia was a tributary of the Hermus, flowing in a south-western direction by the town of Thyatira: whether it emptied itself directly into the Hermus, or only after its juncture with the Hyllus, is uncertain. (Plin. v. 31; comp. Wheler, vol. i. p. 253; P. Lucas, Troisieme Voyage, vol. i. p. 139, who, however, confounds the Lycus with the Hermus.)

4. The Lycus of Phrygia, now called TchorukSu, is a tributary of the Maeander, which it joins a few miles south of Tripolis. It had its sources in the eastern parts of Mount Cadmus (Strab. xii. p. 578), not far from those of the Maeander itself, and flowed in a western direction towards Colossae, near which place it disappeared in a chasm of the earth; after a distance of five stadia, however, its waters reappeared, and, after flowing close by Laodiceia, it discharged itself into the Macander. (Herod. vii. 30; Plin. v. 29; Ptol. v. 2. § 8; Hamilton, Researches, vol. i. p. 508, &c., and Journal of the Royal Geogr. Soc. vii. p. 60, who re-discovered the chasm in which the Lycus disappears, amid the ruins near CHONAS.)

5. Pontus contained two rivers of this name:(a.) A tributary of the Iris in the west, is now called Kulei Hissar. It has its sources in the hills of Lesser Armenia, and, after flowing for some time in a western direction, it turns towards the north, passing through Nicopolis, and emptying itself into the Iris at Magnopolis. The Lycus is almost as important a river as the Iris itself (Strab. xi. p. 529, xii. pp. 547, 556; Plut. Lucul. 15; Plin. vi. 3, 4; Ov. Epist. ex Pont. iv. 10, 47; Hierocl. p. 703; Act. Martyr. vol. iii. Jul. p. 46). (b.) A tributary of the Acampsis or Apsorrhos, in the eastern part of Pontus, and is believed to answer to the modern Gorgoro. (Ptol. v. 6. § 7.)

6. According to Curtius (iii. 1), the river Marsyas, which flowed through the town of Celancae, changed its name into Lycus at the point where it rushed out of the fortifications of the place. [L. S.] LYCUS (Aúkos), a river of Assyria, also called Zabatus. [ZABATUS.]

Wolf-river is plainly identical with the Dog-river of the present day (Nahr-el-Kelb), about 2 hours north of Beyrut; which derives its name, says Maundrell, from an idol in the form of a dog or wolf, which was worshipped, and is said to have pronounced oracles, at this place. It is remarkable for an ancient viaduct cut in the face of a rocky promontory immediately on the south of the stream, the work of Antoninus Pius, as a Latin inscription, copied by Maundrell, and still legible, records (Journey, March 17, pp. 35-37). Cuneiform inscriptions and figures resembling those found at Behistun [BAGISTANUS MONS] would seem to indicate that the Roman einperor did but repair the work of some Persian king. There are casts of the inscriptions and figures in the British Museum. [G. W.

LYCUS (Aúkos), a river of Sarmatia, which flows through the country of the Thyssagetae, and discharges itself into the Palus Maeotis. (Herod. iv. 124.) Herodotus was so much in error about the position of the Maeotis, that it is difficult to make out his geography here. The Lycus has been identified with the LAGOUS of Pliny (vi. 7), or the upper course of the Volga. (Comp. Schafarik, Slav. Alt. vol. i. p. 499.) Rennell (Geog. of Herod. vol. i. p. 119) supposes it may be the Medweditza. It must be distinguished from the Lycus of Ptolemy (iii. 5. § 13), which is the modern Kalmius. (Schafarik, l. c.) [E. B. J.]

LYCUS (Aukos, Ptol. v. 14. § 2), a river of Cyprus, W. of Amathus. At a little distance inland from Capo delle Gatte [CURIAS] are some salt marshes, which receive an arm of a river corresponding with the Lycus of Ptolemy. (Engel, Kypros, vol. i. 37.) [E. B. J.]

LYDDA. [DIOSPOLIS.] LY'DIA (Audía: Eth. Avdós, Lydus), a country in the western part of Asia Minor. Its boundaries varied at different times. Originally it was a small kingdom in the east of the Ionian colonies; but during the period of the Persian dominion it extended to the south as far as the river Maeander, and, perhaps, even to Mount Messogis, whence some writers speak of the Carian towns of Aromata, Tralles, Nysa, and Magnesia on the Maeander, as Lydian towns, and Strabo (xii. 577) mentions the Maeander as the frontier between Lydia and Caria. To the east it extended as far as the river Lycus, so as to embrace a portion of Phrygia. In the time of Croesus, the kingdom of Lydia embraced the whole of Asia Minor between the Aegean and the river Halys, with the exception of Cilicia and Lycia. The limits of Lydia during the Roman period are more definitely fixed; for it bordered in the north on Mysia, from which it was separated near the coast by the river Hermus, and in the inland parts by the range of Mount Temnus; to the east it bordered on Phrygia, and to the south on Caria, from which it was separated by Mount Messogis. To the west it was washed by the Aegean (Plin. v. 30; Strab. i. p. 58, ii. p. 130, xii. pp. 572, 577, &c.), whence it is evident that it embraced the modern province of Sarukhan and the northern part of Sighla. This extent of country, however, includes also Ionia, or the coast country between the mouth of the Hermus and that of the Macander, which was, properly speaking, no part of Lydia. [IONIA.]

1. Physical Features of Lydia.-In the southern and western parts Lydia was a mountainous country, being bounded on the south by the MESSOGIS, and

The

traversed by the range of TMOLUS, which runs parallel to it, and includes the valley of the Caystrus. In the western parts we have, as continuations of Tmolus, Mounts DRACON and OLYMPUS, in the north of which rises Mount SIPYLUS. extensive plains and valleys between these heights are traversed in a western direction by the rivers CAYSTRUS and HERMUS, and their numerous tributaries. The whole country was one of the most fertile in the world, even the sides of the mountains admitting of cultivation; its climate was mild and healthy, though the country has at all times been visited by severe earthquakes. (Xenoph. Cyrop vi. 2. § 21; Strab. i. p. 58.) Its most important productions were an excellent kind of wine, saffron, and gold. The accounts of the ancients about the quantity of gold found in Lydia, from which Croesus was believed to have derived his wealth, are no doubt exaggerated, for in later times the sand of the river Pactolus contained no gold at all, and the proceeds of the gold mines of Mount Tmolus were so small as scarcely to pay for the labour of working them. (Strab. xiii. p. 591.) The plains about the Hermus and Caystrus were the most fertile parts of the country, if we except the coast districts of Ionia. The most celebrated of these plains and valleys bore distinct names, as the CILBIANIAN, the CAYSTRIAN, the HYRCANIAN; and the CATACECAUMENE in the north east. Some of these plains also contained lakes of considerable extent, the most important of which are the GYGAEA LACUS, on the north of the Hermus, and some smaller ones in the neighbourhood of Ephesus, which were particularly rich in fish. The capital of the country at all times was SARDES.

2. Names and Inhabitants of the Country.-In the Homeric poems the names Lycia and Lycians do not occur; but the people dwelling about Mount Tmolus and Lake Gygaea, that is the country afterwards called Lydia, bear the name Meones or Maeones (Myjoves, M. ii. 865, v. 43, x. 431), and are allied with the Trojans. The earliest author who mentions the name Lydians is the lyric poet Mimnermus (Fragm. 14, ed. Bergk), whose native city of Colophon was conquered by the Lydians. Herodotus (i. 7) states that the people originally called Meones afterwards adopted the name of Lydians, from Lydus the son of Atys; and he accordingly regards Lydians and Meonians as the same people. But some of the ancients, as we learn from Strabo (xii. p. 572, xiv. p. 679), considered them as two distinct races, -a view which is unquestionably the correct one, and has been adopted in modern times by Niebuhr and other inquirers. A change of name like that of Maeonians into Lydians alone suggests the idea of the former people being either subdued or expelled by the latter. When once the name Lydians had been established, it was applied indiscriminately to the nation that had been conquered by them as well as to the conquerors, and hence it happens that later writers use the name Lydians even when speaking of a time when there were no Lydians in the country, but only Maeonians. We shall first endeavour to show who the Maeonians were, and then proceed to the more difficult question about the Lydians and the time when they conquered the Maeonians. The Maeonians unquestionably belonged to the IndoEuropean stock of nations, or that branch of them which is generally called Tyrrhenian or Pelasgian, for these latter "inhabited Lesbos before the Greeks took possession of those islands (Strab. v. p. 221

xiii. p. 621), and, according to Menecrates the Elaean, the whole coast of Ionia, beginning from Mycale, and of Aeolis." (Niebuhr, Hist. of Rome, vol. i. p. 32.) They no doubt extended beyond the coast into the interior of the country. The existence of a Pelasgian population is probably also implied in the statement, that the most ancient royal dynasty of Lydia were Heracleidae, and that Lydus was a brother of Tyrrhenus. The Lydians, on the other hand, are expressly stated to have had nothing in common with the Pelasgians (Dionys. i. 30), and all we know of them points to more eastern countries as their original home. It is true that Herodotus connects the Heracleid dynasty with that of Assyria, but if any value can be attached to this statement at all, it refers only to the rulers; but it may be as unfounded as his belief that most of the Greek institutions had been derived from Egypt. The Lydians are described as a kindred people of the Carians and Mysians, and all three are said to have had one common ancestor as well as one common language and religion. (Herod. i. 171.) The Carians are the only one of these three nations that are mentioned by Homer. It is impossible to ascertain what country was originally inhabited by the Lydians, though it is reasonable to assume that they occupied some district near the Maeonians; and it is possible that the Phrygians, who are said to have migrated into Asia from Thrace, may have pressed upon the Lydians, and thus forced them to make conquests in the country of the Maeonians. The time when these conquests took place, and when the Maeonians were overpowered or expelled, is conjectured by Niebuhr (Lect. on Anc. Hist. vol. i. p. 87) to have been the time when the Heracleid dynasty was supplanted by that of the Merinadae, who were real Lydians. This would place the conquest of Maeonia by the Lydians about the year B. c. 720. The Maeonians, however, after this, still maintained themselves in the country of the Upper Hermus, which continued to be called Maeonia; whence Ptolemy (v. 2. § 21) speaks of Maeonia as a part of Lydia. Pliny (v. 30) also speaks of the Maeonii as the inhabitants of a district between Philadelphia and Tralles, and Hierocles (p. 670) and other ecclesiastical writers mention there a small town called Maeonia, which Mr. Hamilton (Researches, vol. ii. p. 139, &c.) is inclined to identify with the ruins of Megne, about five miles west of Sandal. To what branch of the human family the Lydians belonged is a question which cannot be answered, any more than that about their original seats; all the Lydian words which have been transmitted to us are quite foreign to the Greek, and their kinsmen, the Carians, are described as a people speaking a barbarous lan. guage.

3. Institutions and Customs-Although the Lydians must be regarded as barbarians, and although they were different from the Greeks both in their language and in their religion, yet they were capable, like some other Asiatic nations, of adopting or developing institutions resembling those of the Greeks, though in a lesser degree than the Carians and Lycians, for the Lydians always lived under a monarchy, and never rose to free political institutions. They and the Carians were both gifted nations; they cultivated the arts, and were in many respects little inferior to the Greeks. Previous to their conquest by the Persians, they were an industrious, brave, and warlike people, and their cavalry was

regarded as the best at that time. (Herod. i. 79; Mimnerm. I. c.) Cyrus purposely crushed their warlike spirit, forbade them the use of arms, and caused them to practice dancing and singing, instead of cultivating the arts of war. (Herod. i. 154; Justin, i. 8.) Their subsequent partiality to music was probably the reason why the Greeks ascribed to them the invention of gymnastic games. (Herod. i. 94.) The mode of life thus forced upon them by their conquerors gradually led them to that degree of effeminacy for which they were afterwards so notorious. Their commercial industry, however, continued under the Persian rule, and was a source of great prosperity. (Herod. i. 14, 25, 51, &c.) In their manners the Lydians differed but little from the Greeks, though their civilisation was inferior, as is manifest from the fact of their daughters generally gaining their dowries by public prostitution, without thereby injuring their reputation. (Herod. i. 93.) The moral character of the Lydian women necessarily suffered from such a custom, and it cannot be matter of surprise that ancient Greek authors speak of them with contempt. (Strab. xi. p. 533, xiii. p. 627.) As to the religion of the Lydians we know very little their chief divinity appears to have been Cybele, but they also worshipped Artemis and Bacchus (Athen. xiv. p. 636; Dionys. Perieg. 842), and the phallus worship seems to have been universal, whence we still find enormous phalli on nearly all the Lydian tombs. (Hamilton's Researches, vol. 1. p. 145.) The Lydians are said to have been the first to establish inns for travellers, and to coin money. (Herod. i. 94.) The Lydian coins display Greek art in its highest perfection; they have no inscriptions, but are only adorned with the figure of a lion, which was the talisman of Sardes. We do not know that the Lydians had any alphabet or literature of their own: the want of these things can scarcely have been felt, for the people must at an early period have become familiar with the language and literature of their Greek neighbours.

4. History.-The Greeks possessed several works on the history of Lydia, and one of them was the production of Xanthus, a native of Sardes, the capital of Lydia; but all have perished with the exception of a few insignificant fragments. If we had the work of Xanthus, we should no doubt be well in. formed on various points on which we can now only form conjectures. As it is, we owe nearly all our knowledge of Lydian history to Herodotus. According to him (i. 7) Lydia was successively governed by three dynasties. The first began with Lydus, the son of Atys, but the number of its kings is not mentioned. The second dynasty was that of the Heracleidae, beginning with Agron, and ending with Candaules, whom the Greeks called Myrsilus. The commencement of the Heracleid dynasty may be dated about B. c. 1200; they are connected in the legend in Herodotus with the founder of Nineveh, which, according to Niebuhr, means either that they were actually descended from an Assyrian family, or that the Heracleid dynasty submitted to the supremacy of the king of Nineveh, and thus connected itself with the race of Ninus and Belus. The Heracleids maintained themselves on the throne of Lydia, in unbroken succession, for a period of 505 years. The third dynasty, or that of the Mermnadae, probably the first really Lydian rulers, commenced their reign, according to some, in B. C. 713 or 716, and according to Eusebius, twenty-two years later. Gyges,