of these the latter measurement is almost exactly correct, but the former much overstated, as he is speaking there of Italy exclusive of Cisalpine Gaul. The total length of Italy (in the wider sense of the word), from the foot of the Alps near Aosta (Augusta Praetoria) to the Iapygian promontory, is about 620 geog. miles, as measured in a direct line on a map; but from the same point to the promontory of Leucopetra, which is the extreme southern point of Italy, is above 660 geog. miles. Pliny states the distance from the same starting-point to Rhegium at 1020 M. P., or 816 geog. miles, which is greatly overstated, unless we suppose him to follow the windings of the road instead of measuring the distance geographically. (Plin. iii. 5. s. 6.) He also states the greatest breadth of Italy, from the Varus to the Arsia, at 410 M. P., which is very nearly correct; the actual distance from the Varus to the head of the Adriatic, measured in a straight line, being 300 geog. miles (375 M. P.), while from thence to the Arsia is about 50 geog. miles. Pliny adds, that the breadth of the peninsula, from the mouths of the Tiber to those of the Aternus, is 136 M. P., which considerably exceeds the truth for that particular point; but the widest part of the peninsula, from Ancona across to the Monte Armentaro, is 130 geog., or 162 Roman, miles.

abounded in fish, and its mountains contained mines of all kinds of metals; but that which was the greatest advantage of all was the excellent temperature of its climate, free alike from the extremes o heat and cold, and adapted for all kinds of plants and animals. (Dionys. i. 36, 37.) Strabo dwells not only on these natural resources, but on its political advantages as a seat of empire; defended on two sides by the sea, on the third by almost impassable mountains; possessing excellent ports on both seas, yet not affording too great facilities o access; and situated in such a position, with regard to the great nations of Western Europe, on the one side, and to Greece and Asia, on the other, as seemed to destine it for universal dominion. (Strab. vi. p. 286.) Pliny, as might be expected, is not less enthusiastic in favour of his native country, and Varm adds that of all countries it was that in which the greatest advantage was derived from its natural fertility by careful cultivation. (Plin. iii. 5. s. 6, xxxvii. 13. s. 77; Varr. R. R. i. 2.)

It is probable that the climate of Italy did not differ materially in ancient times from what it is at the present day. The praises bestowed on it for its freedom from excessive heat in summer may surprise those who compare it in this respect with more northern climates; but it is to be remembered that ancient writers spoke with reference to the countries around the Mediterranean, and were more familiar with the climate of Africa, Syria, and Egypt, than with those of Gaul or Germany. On the other hand, there are passages in the Roman writers that seem to indicate a degree of cold exceeding what is found at the present day, especially in the neighbourhood of Rome. Horace speaks of Soracte as white with and the Alban hills as covered with it on the first approach of winter (Hor. Carm. i. 9, Ep. i. 7. 10); and Juvenal even alludes to the Tiber being covered with ice, as if it were an ordinary occurrence (vi. 522). Some allowance may be made for poetical exaggeration; but still it is probable that the climate of Italy was somewhat colder, or rather that the winters were more severe than they now are, though this remark must be confined within narrow limits; and it is probable that the change which has taken place is far less than in Gaul or Germany.

snow,

III. CLIMATE AND NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. Italy was not less renowned in ancient than in modern times for its beauty and fertility. For this it was indebted in great part to its climate, combined with the advantages of its physical configuration. Extending from the parallel of 30° N. lat. to 46° 30', its southern extremity enjoyed the same climate with Greece, while its northern portions were on a par with the S. of France. The lofty range of Apennines extending throughout its whole length, and the seas which bathe its shores on both sides, contributed at once to temper and vary its climate, so as to adapt it for the productions alike of the temperate and the warmest parts of Europe. Hence the variety as well as abundance of its natural produce, which excited the admiration of so many ancient writers. The fine burst of enthusiasm with which Virgil sings the praises of his native land is too well known to require notice (Virg. Georg Great stress has also been laid by many modern ii. 136-176); but even the prosaic Dionysius writers upon the fact that populous cities then exand Strabo are kindled into almost equal ardour isted, and a thriving agricultural population was by the same theme. The former writer remarks, found, on sites and in districts now desolated by that of all countries with which he was acquainted malaria; and hence it is inferred that the climate has Italy united the most natural advantages: for that become much more unhealthy in modern times. But it did not, like Egypt or Babylonia, possess a soil population and cultivation have in themselves a adapted for agriculture only; but while the Cam- strong tendency to repress the causes of malaria. panian plains rivalled, if they did not surpass, in The fertile districts on the coasts of Southern Italy fertility all other arable lands, the olives of Messa- once occupied by the flourishing Greek colonies are pia, Daunia, and the Sabines, were not excelled by now pestilential wastes; but they became almost deany others; and the vineyards of Etruria, the Fa-solate from other causes before they grew so unlernian and the Alban hills, produced wines of the most excellent quality, and in the greatest abundance. Nor was it less favourable to the rearing of flocks, whether of sheep or goats; while its pastures were of the richest description, and supported innumerable herds both of horses and cattle. Its mountain sides were clothed with magnificent forests, affording abundance of timber for ship-building and all other purposes, which could be transported to the coast with facility by its numerous navigable rivers. Abundance of warm springs in different parts of the country supplied not only the means of luxurious baths, but valuabie medical remedies. Its seas

healthy. In the case of Paestum, a marked diminution in the effects of malaria has been perceived, even from the slight amount of population that has been attracted thither since the site has become the frequent resort of travellers, and the partial cultivation that has resulted from it. Nor can it be asserted that Italy, even in its most flourishing days, was ever free from this scourge, though particular localities were undoubtedly more healthy than at present. Thus, the Maremma of Tuscany was noted, even in the time of Pliny, for its insalubrity (Plin. Ep. v. 6); the neighbourhood of Ardea was almost uninhabited from the same cause, at a still earlier

period (Strab. v. p. 231); and Cicero even extols the | The volcanic district of Rome, as we may term the situation of Rome, as compared with the rest of La- more northern of the two, is about 100 miles in tium, as a healthy spot in the midst of a pes-length, by 30 to 35 in breadth; while that of Camtilential region." (Cic. de Rep. ii. 6.) But the imperial city itself was far from being altogether exempt. Horace abounds with allusions to the prevalence of fevers in the summer and autumn (Ep. i. 7, Sat. ii. 6. 19, Carm. ii. 14. 16), though the dense population must have tended materially to repress them. Even at the present day the most thickly peopled parts of Rome are wholly exempt from malaria. (This question is more fully discussed under the article LATIUM.)

pania is about 60 miles long, with an average, though very irregular, breadth of 20. North of the former lie the detached summits of Mte. Amiata and Radicofani, both of them composed of volcanic rocks; while at a distance of 60 miles E. of the Campanian basin, and separated from it by the intervening mass of the Apennines, is situated the isolated volcanic peak of Mt. Vultur (Voltore), a mountain whose regular conical form, and the great crater-shaped basin on its northern flank, at once prove its volcanic character; though this also, as well as the volcanoes of Latium and Etruria, has displayed no signs of activity within the historical era. (Daubeny, On Volcanoes, ch. xi.)

It is scarcely necessary to enumerate in detail the natural productions of Italy, of which a summary view has already been given in the passages cited from ancient authors, and the details will be found under the heads of the several provinces. But it is worth while to observe how large a portion of those productions, which are at the present day among the chief objects of Italian cultivation, and even impart to its scenery some of its most peculiar characters, are of quite modern introduction, and were wholly unknown when the Greek and Roman writers were extolling its varied resources and inexhaustible fertility. To this class belong the maize and rice so extensively cultivated in the plains of Lombardy, the oranges of the Ligurian coast and the neighbourhood of Naples, the aloes and cactuses which clothe the rocks on the sea-shore in the southern provinces; while the mulberry tree, though well known in ancient times, never became an important object of culture until after the introduction of the silk-worm in the 13th century. Of the different

The volcanic phenomena displayed so conspicuously in some parts of Italy did not fail to attract the attention of ancient writers. The eruptions of Aenaria, which had occurred soon after the first settlement of the Greek colonists there, were recorded by Timaeus (ap. Strab. v. p. 248); and the fables conrected with the lake Avernus and its neighbourhood had evidently a similar origin. Strabo also correctly argued that Vesuvius was itself a volcanic mountain, long before the fearful eruption of A. D. 79 gave such signal proof that its fires were not, as he supposed, extinct. (Strab. v. p. 247.) This catastrophe, fearful as it was, was confined to Campania; but earthquakes (to which Italy is so subject at the present day) appear to have been not less frequent and destructive in ancient times, and were far from being limited to the volcanic regions. They are mentioned as occurring in Apulia, Picenum, Umbria, Etruria, Liguria, and other parts of Italy; and though their effects are generally noticed somewhat vaguely, yet the leading phenomena which accompany them at the present day-the subsidence of tracts of land, the fall of rocks and portions of mountains, the change of the course of rivers, the irruption of the sea, as well as the overthrow of buildings, and sometimes of whole towns and cities-kinds of fruits known to the ancient Romans, many are all mentioned by ancient writers. (Liv. xxii. 5; Jul. Obseq. 86, 96, 105, 106, 122, &c.) Slight shocks were not unfrequent at Rome itself, though it never suffered any serious calamity from this cause. But the volcanic action, which had at a far distant period extended over broad tracts of Central Italy, and given rise to the plains of the Campagna and the Phlegraean Fields, as well as to the lofty groups of the Alban and Ciminian hills, had ceased long before the age of historical record; and no Ronan writer seems to have suspected that the Alban lake had once been a crater of eruption, or that the " silex" with which the Via Appia was paved was derived from a stream of basaltic lava. [LATIUM.]

The volcanic region (in this geological sense) of Central Italy consists of two separate tracts of country, of considerable extent; the one comprising the greater part of Old Latium (or what is now called the Campagna of Rome), together with the southern part of Etruria; and the other occupying a large portion of Campania, including not only Vesuvius and the volcanic hills around the lake Avernus, but the broad and fertile plain which extends from the Bay of Naples to the banks of the Liris. These two tracts of volcanic origin are separated by the Volscian mountains, a series of calcareous ranges branching off from the Apennines, and filling up the space from the banks of the Liris to the borders of the Pontine marshes, which last form a broad strip of alluvial soil, extending from the volcanic district of the Roman Campagna to the Monte Circello. |

were undoubtedly of exotic origin, and of some the period of their introduction was recorded; but alinost all of them throve well in Italy, and the gardens and orchards of the wealthy Romans surpassed all others then known in the variety and excellence of their produce. At the same time, cultivation of the more ordinary descriptions of fruit was so extensive, that Varro remarks: "Arboribus consita Italia est, ut tota pomarium videatur." (R. R. i. 2. § 6.)

Almost all ancient writers concur in praising the metallic wealth of Italy; and Pliny even asserts that it was, in this respect also, superior to all other lands; but it was generally believed that the government intentionally discouraged the full exploration of these mineral resources. (Plin. iii. 20. s. 24, xxxvii. 13. s. 77; Strab. vi. p. 286; Dionys. i. 37; Virg. Georg. ii. 166.)

It is doubtful whether this policy was really designed to husband their wealth or to conceal their poverty; but it is certain that Italy was far from being really so rich in metallic treasures as was supposed, and could bear no comparison in this respect with Spain. Gold was unquestionably found in some of the streams which flowed from the Alps, and in some cases (as among the Ictymuli and Salassi) was extracted from them in considerable quantities; but these workings, or rather washings appear to have been rapidly exhausted, and the goldworks on the frontiers of Noricum, celebrated for their richness by Polybius, had ceased to exist in the days of Strabo. (Strab. iv. p. 208.) Silver is enumerated, also, among the metallic treasures of

50 miles. E. of this, and flowing from the Alps direct to the Adriatic, come in succession, the Medoacus or Brenta, the Plavis or Piave, the Tila vemptus (Tagliamento), and the Sontius (Isonzo), besides many smaller streams, which will be noticed under the article VENETIA.

Italy; but we have no specific account of its pro- | parallel with the greater river for a distance of above duction, and the fact that silver money was unknown to the ancient nations of Italy sufficiently shows that it was not found in any great quantity. The early coinage of Italy was of copper, or rather bronze; and this metal appears to have been extracted in large quantities, and applied to a variety of purposes by the Etruscans, from a very early period. The same people were the first to explore the iron mines of Ilva, which continued to be assiduously worked by the Romans; though the metal produced was thought inferior to that of Noricum. Of other minerals, cinnabar (minium) and calamine (cadmium) are noticed by Pliny. The white marble of Luna, also, was extensively quarried by the Romans, and seems to have been recognised as a superior material for sculpture to any of those derived from Greece.

IV. RIVERS, LAKES, AND MOUNTAINS. The configuration of Italy is unfavourable to the formation of great rivers. The Padus is the only stream which deserves to rank among the principal rivers of Europe even the Arnus and the Tiber, celebrated as are their names in history, being inferior in magnitude to many of the secondary streams, which are mere tributaries of the Rhine, the Rhone, or the Danube. In the north of Italy, indeed, the rivers which flow from the perpetual snows of the Alps are furnished with a copious and constant supply of water; but the greater part of those which have their sources in the Apennines, though large 1 and formidable streams when swollen by heavy rains or the snows of winter, dwindle into insignificance at other times, and present but scanty streams of water winding through broad beds covered with stones and shingle. It is only by comparison with Greece that Italy (with the exception of Cisalpine Gaul) could be praised for its abundance of navigable rivers.

Liguria, S. of the Apennines, has very few streams worthy of notice, the mountains here approaching so close to the coast as to leave but a short course for their waters. The most considerable are, the Varus (Var), which forms the western limit of the province; the Rutuba (Roja), flowing through the land of the Intemelii, and the Macra (Magra), which divides Liguria from Etruria.

The rivers of Central Italy, as already mentioned, all take their rise in the Apennines, or the mountain groups dependent upon them. The two most important of these are the Arnus (Arno) and Tiberis (Tevere). The Ausar (Serchio), which now pursues an independent course to the sea a few miles N. of the Arnus, was formerly a confluent of that river. Of the smaller streams of Etruria, which have their sources in the group of hills that separate the basin of the Arno from that of the Tiber, the most considerable are the Caecina (Cecina), the Umbro (Ombrone), and the Arminia (Fiora). The great valley of the Tiber, which has a general southerly direction, from its sources in the Apennines on the confines of Etruria and Umbria to its mouth at Ostia, a distance in a direct line of 140 geog. miles, is the most important physical feature of Central Italy. That river receives in its course many tributary streams, but the only ones which are important in a geographical point of view are the CLANIS, the NAR, and the ANIO. Of these the Nar brings with it the waters of the Velinus, a stream at least as considerable as its own.

South of the Tiber are the LIRIS (Garigliano or The PADUS, or Po, is by far the most important Liri), which has its sources in the central Apenriver of Italy, flowing from W. to E. through the nines near the lake Fucinus; and the VULTURvery midst of the great basin or trough of Northern NUS (Volturno), which brings with it the collected Italy, and receiving, in consequence, from both sides, waters of almost the whole of Samnium, receiving all the waters from the southern declivities of the near Beneventum the tributary streams of the Calor Alps, as well as from the northern slopes of the (Calore), the Sabatus (Sabbato), and the Tamarus Apennines. Hence, though its course does not ex- (Tamaro). Both of these rivers flow through the ceed 380 geog. miles in length, and the direct distance plain of Campania to the sea: south of that province, from its sources in the Mons Vesulus (Mte. Viso) to and separating it from Lucania, is the SILARUS its mouth in the Adriatic is only 230 miles, the (Sele), which, with its tributaries the Calor (Calore) body of water which it brings down to the sea is and Tanager (Negro), drains the western valleys of very large. Its principal tributaries are as follows, the Lucanian Apennines. This is the last river of beginning with those on the N. bank, and proceeding any magnitude that flows to the western coast of from W. to E. :-(1) the Duria Minor (Doria Ripa- Italy: further to the S. the Apennines approach so ria), which joins the Po near Turin 'Augusta Tauri- near to the shore that the streams which descend norum; (2) the Stura (Stura); (3) the Orgus (Orco), from them to the sea are mere mountain torrents of (4) the Duria Major, or Dora Baltea; (5) the Ses-trifling length and size. One of the most considersites (Sesia); (6) the Ticinus (Ticino); (7) the Lambrus (Lambro); (8) the Addua (Adda); (9) the Ollius (Oglio); (10) the Mincius (Mincio). Equally numerous, though less important in volume and magnitude, are its tributaries from the S. side, the chief of which are:-(1) the Tanarus (Tanaro), flowing from the Maritime Alps, and much the most considerable of the southern feeders of the Po; (2) the Trebia (Trebbia); (3) the Tarus (Taro); (4) the Incius (Enza); (5) the Gabellus (Secchia); (6) the Scultenna (Panaro); (7) the Renus (Reno); (8) the Vatrenus (Santerno). (Plin. iii. 16. s. 20.) The first river which, descending from the Alps, does not join the Padus, is the Athesis or Adige, which in the lower part of its course flows nearly

able of them is the Laüs (Lao), which forms the limit between Lucania and Bruttium. The other minor streams of those two provinces are enumerated under their respective articles.

Returning now to the eastern or Adriatic coast of Italy, we find, as already noticed, a large number of streams, descending from the Apennines to the sea, but few of them of any great magnitude, though those which have their sources in the highest parts of the range are formidable torrents at particular seasons of the year. Beginning from the frontiers of Cisalpine Gaul, and proceeding from N. to S., the most important of these rivers are:- -(1) the Ariminus (Marecchia); (2) the Crustumius (Conca); (3) the Pisaurus (Foglia); (4) the Metaurus (Metauro);

(5) the Aesis (Esino); (6) the Potentia (Potenza); (7) the Flusor (Chienti); (8) the Truentus (Tronto); (9) the Vomanus (Vomano); (10) the Aternus (Aterno or Pescara); (11) the Sagrus (Sangro); (12) the Trinius (Trigno); (13) the Tifernus (Biferno); (14) the Frento (Fortore); (15) the Cerbalus (Cervaro); (16) the Aufidus (Ofanto), which has much the longest course of all the rivers falling into the Adriatic.

Beyond this, not a single stream worthy of notice flows to the Adriatic; those which have their sources in the central Apennines of Lucania all descending towards the Tarentine gulf; these are, the Bradanus (Bradano), the Casuentus (Basiento), the Aciris (Agri), and the Siris (Sinno). The only rivers of Bruttium worthy of mention are the Crathis (Crati) and the Neaethus (Neto).

(The minor streams and those noticed in history, but of no geographical importance, are enumerated in the descriptions of the several provinces.)

cipal summits of the latter range have been already noticed under the article APENNINUS. The few outlying or detached summits, which do not properly belong to the Apennines are :-(1) the Monte Amiata or Monte di Santa Fiora, in the heart of Etruria, which rises to a height of 5794 feet above the sea; (2) the MoNS CIMINUS, a volcanic group of very inferior elevation; (3) the MONS ALBANUS, rising to above 3000 feet; (4) the MONS VESUVIUS, in Campania, attaining between 3000 and 4000 feet; (5) the MONS VULTUR, on the opposite side of the Apennines, which measures 4433 feet; and (6) the MONS GARGANUS, an isolated mass, but geologically connected with the Apennines, while all the preceding are of volcanic origin, and therefore geologically, as well as geographically, distinct from the neighbouring Apennines.

To these may be added the two isolated mountain promontories of the Mons Argentarius (Monte Argentaro) on the coast of Etruria, and Mons Circeius (Monte Circello) on that of Latium,- both of them rising like rocky islands, joined to the mainland only by low strips of alluvial soil.

IV. ETHNOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ITALY. The inquiry into the origin and affinities of the different races which peopled the Italian peninsula before it fell altogether under the dominion of Rome, and the national relations of the different tribes with which the rising republic came successively into contact, is a problem which has more or less attracted the attention of scholars ever since the revival of letters. But it is especially of late years that the impulse given to comparative philology, combined with the spirit of historical criticism, has directed their researches to this subject. Yet, after all that has been written on it, from the time of Niebuhr to the present day, it must be admitted that it is still enveloped in great obscurity. The scantiness of the monuments that remain to us of the languages of these different nations; the various and contradictory statements of ancient authors concerning them; and the uncertainty, even with regard to the most ap

The Italian lakes may be considered as readily arranging themselves into three groups:-1. The lakes of Northern Italy, which are on a far larger scale than any of the others, are all basins formed by the rivers which descend from the high Alps, and the waters of which are arrested just at their exit from the mountains. Hence they are, as it were, valleys filled with water, and are of elongated form and considerable depth; while their superfluous waters are carried off in deep and copious streams, which become some of the principal feeders of the Po. Such are the Lacus Verbanus (Lago Maggiore), formed by the Ticinus; the Lacus Larius (Lago di Como), by the Addua; the Lacus Sebinus (Lago d'Iseo), by the Ollius; and the Lacus Benacus (Lago di Garda), by the Mincius. To these Pliny adds the Lacus Eupilis, from which flows the Lamber or Lambro, a very trifling sheet of water (Plin. iii. 19. s. 23); while neither he, nor any other ancient writer, mentions the Lago di Lugano, situated between the Lake of Como and Lago Maggiore, though it is inferior in magnitude only to the three great lakes. It is first mentioned by Gregory of Tours in the 6th century, under the name of Cere-parently authentic of these statements, on what sius Lacus, an appellation probably ancient, though not now found in any earlier author. 2. The lakes of Central Italy are, with few exceptions, of volcanic origin, and occupy the craters of long extinct volcanoes. Hence they are mostly of circular or oval form, of no great extent, and, not being fed by perennial streams, either require no natural outlet, or have their surplus waters carried off by very inconsiderable streams. The largest of these volcanic lakes is the Lacus Vulsiniensis, or Lago di Bolsena, in Southern Etruria, a basin of about 30 miles in circumference. Of similar character and origin are, the Lacus Sabatinus (Lago di Bracciano) and Lacus Ciminus (Lago di Vico), in the same district; the Lacus Albanus (Lago d'Albano) and Lacus Nemorensis (Lago di Nemi), in Latium; and the Lake Avernus in Campania. 3. Wholly differing from the preceding are the two most considerable lakes in this portion of Italy, the Lacus Trasimenus (Lago di Perugia) and Lacus Fucinus (Lago Fucino or Lago di Celano); both of which are basins surrounded by hills or mountains, leaving no natural outlet for their waters, but wholly unconnected with volcanic agency.

The mountains of Italy belong almost exclusively either to the great chain of the Alps, which bounds it on the N., or to that of the Apennines. The prin

authority they were really founded; combine to embarrass our inquiries, and lead us to mistrust our conclusions. It will be impossible, within the limits of an article like the present, to enter fully into the discussion of these topics, or examine the arguments that have been brought forward by different writers upon the subject. All that can be attempted is to give such a summary view of the most probable results, as will assist the student in forming a connected idea of the whole subject, and enable him to follow with advantage the researches of other writers. Many of the particular points here briefly referred to will be more fully investigated in the several articles of the different regions and races to which they relate.

Leaving out of view for the present the inhabitants of Northern Italy, the Gauls, Ligurians, and Veneti, the different nations of the peninsula may be grouped under five heads:-(1) the Pelasgians; (2) the Oscans; (3) the Sabellians; (4) the Umbrians; (5) the Etruscans.

1. PELASGIANS.-All ancient writers concur in ascribing a Pelasgic origin to many of the most ancient tribes of Italy, and there seems no reason to doubt that a large part of the population of the peninsula was really of Pelesgic race, that is to say, that it belonged to the same great nation or family

2. OSCANS.At a very early period, and certainly before the commencement of historical record, a considerable portion of Central Italy appears to have been in the possession of a people who were called by the Greeks Opicans, and by the Latins Oscans, and whom we are led to identify also with the Ausonians [AUSONES] of the Greeks, and the It is far more difficult to trace with any security Auruncans of Roman writers. From them was the Pelasgic population of Central Italy, where it derived the name of Opicia or Opica, which appears appears to have been very early blended with other to have been the usual appellation, in the days both national elements, and did not anywhere subsist in of Thucydides and Aristotle, for the central portion an unmingled form within the period of historical of the peninsula, or the country north of what was record. But various as have been the theories and then called Italy. (Thuc. vi. 4; Arist. Pol. vii. 10.) suggestions with regard to the population of Etruria, All the earliest authorities concur in representing there seems to be good ground for assuming that the Opicans as the earliest inhabitants of Campania, one important element, both of the people and lan- and they were still in possession of that fertile disguage, was Pelasgic, and that this element was pre-trict when the Greek colonies were planted there. dominant in the southern part of Etruria, while it was more feeble, and had been comparatively effaced in the more northern districts. [ETRURIA.] The