removal of the government to Madrid, has been the cause of its decline. Toledo was formerly the seat of several meetings of the cortes, and of a number of national church councils. Forty miles S. S. W. of Madrid, and 290 east by north of Lisbon. TOLENTINO, a town in the state of the church, Italy, situated on a rising ground, watered by the river Chiento. It contains nearly 4000 inhabitants, and is remarkable for a treaty of peace concluded here between Buonaparte and the papal court in February1797; also for some partial actions between the Austrians and Neapolitans in the beginning of May, 1815. Thirty miles S. S. W. of Ancona, and ninety-two N. N. E. of Rome. TOLERABLE, adj. tolerabilis. Fr. tolerable; Lat. TOLERABLY, adv. Supportable; that may be endured or supported: the adverb corresponding. It shall be more tolerable for Sodom in the day of judgment than for that city. Matthew. Yourselves, who have sought them, ye so excuse, as that ye would have men to think ye judge them not allowable, but tolerable only, and to be borne with, for the furtherance of your purposes, till the corrupt estate of the church may be better formed. Cold and heat scarce tolerable. Hooker. Milton. There is nothing of difficulty in the external performance, but what hypocrisy can make tolerable to itself. Tillotson. The reader may be assured of a tolerable translation. Dryden. The person to whom this head belonged laughed frequently, and on particular occasions had acquitted himself tolerably at a ball. Spectator. Sometimes are found in these laxer strata bodies that are still tolerably firm. Woodward. Princes have it in their power to keep a majority on their side by any tolerable administration, till provoked by continual oppressions. Swift. TOL'ERATE, v. a. Lat. tolero; Fr. tolerer. TOLERATION, n. s. To allow so as not to TOL'ERANCE. hinder; to suffer; pass uncensured the noun substantives both corresponding. Inasmuch as they did resolve to remove only such things of that kind as the church might best spare, retaining the residue; their whole counsel is, in this point, utterly condemned, as having either proceeded from the blindness of those times, or from negligence, or from desire of honour and glory, or from an erroneous opinion that such things might be tolerated for a while. Hooker. TOLL, n. s. & v. n. Sax. toll; Belg. tol; Teut. zol; Welsh toll, from Goth. tala, to divide out. A portion; an excise of goods; a payment for permission to pass; a fee: to pay such a fee or tax; also to take it. The meale the more yeeldeth if servant be true, And miller that tolleth takes none but his due. Tusser. him; for this, I'll none of him. I will buy me a son-in-law in a fair, and toll for Shakspeare. Empson and Dudley the people esteemed as his horse-leeches, bold men, that took toll of their mas ter's grist. Bacon. Toll, in law, has two significations: first, a liberty to buy and sell within the precincts of a manor, which seems to import as much as a fair or market; secondly, a tribute or custom paid for passage. Cowell. Where, when, by whom, and what y' were sold for, And in the open market tolled for? Hudibras. The same Prusias joined with the Rhodians against the Byzantines, and stopped them from levying the toll upon their trade into the Euxine. Arbuthnot. Gentle bell, for the soul Of the pure ones. Denham. When any one dies, then by tolling or ringing of a bell the same is known to the searchers. Graunt. Our going to church at the tolling of a bell, only tells us the time when we ought to go to worship God. Stilling fleet. You love to hear of some prodigious tale, The bell that tolled alone, or Irish whale. Dryden. With horns and trumpets now to madness swell, Now sink in sorrows with a tolling bell. Pope. TOLL, v. a. Lat. tollo. To take or invite away; annul; vacate. The adventitious moisture which hangeth loose in radical moisture along with it. a body, betrayeth and tolleth forth the innate and Bacon. An appeal from sentence of excommunication does not suspend it, but then devolves it to a superior judge, and tolls the presumption in favour of a senAyliffe. tence. vend goods in a market or fair, or for keeping A TOLL is a tax or custom paid for liberty to roads in proper repair. The first appointment of a toll on highways of which we read took place in 1346. See ROAD. TOLL BOOTH, v. a. To imprison in a tollbooth. To these what did he give? why a hen, That they might tollbooth Oxford men. Bishop Corbet. TOLLET (Elizabeth), an ingenious and learned English lady, born in 1694. She was well skilled in Latin, French, and Italian, as well as in history and mathematics. She wrote several poems, and a dramatic piece entitled Susanna, or Innocence Preserved. TOLLIUS (Alexander), a learned Dutch critic, born at Ingra in the province of Utrecht. He published an elegant edition of Appian. TOLLIUS (Cornelius), brother of the preceding, was also a learned critic, and became secretary to Isaac Vossius, and afterwards professor of Greek and rhetoric at Harderwyck. He published an edition of Palæphatus, and a work entitled De Infelicitate Literatorum. TOLLIUS (James), M. D., brother to Cornelius and Alexander, was born at Ingra in Utrecht, and studied physic. He became a physician and professor of rhetoric and Greek at Brandenburg. He published elegant editions of, 1. Ausonius, cum notis variorum, 1671; 2. Longinus de Sublimitate, 1694. He died in 1696. TOLMIDES, an Athenian general, who was defeated and killed in a battle with the Thebans in Bœotia, A. A. C. 447.-Polyæn. 7. TOLOSA, in ancient geography, a town of Gallia Narbonensis, which became a Roman colony under Augustus. There was in it a rich temple of Minerva which Cæpio the Roman consul plundered, but being ever afterwards unfortunate, aurum Tolosanum became proverbial. Cæs. de B. G. It is now called Toulouse. TOLU, BALSAM OF. This substance is soluble in the alkalies, like the rest of the balsams. When dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of lixivium of potash, it completely loses its own odor and assumes a fragrant smell, somewhat resembling that of the clove pink. This smell' Mr. Hatchett observes, 'is not fugitive, for it is still retained by a solution which was prepared in June, and has remained in an open glass during four months. When digested in sulphuric acid a considerable quantity of pure benzoic acid sublimes. When the solution of it in this acid is evaporated to dryness, and the residuum treated with alcohol, a portion of artificial tannin is obtained the residual charcoal amounts to 0.54 of the original balsam. Mr. Hatchett found that it dissolved in nitric acid, with nearly the same phenomena as the resins; but it assumed the smell of bitter almonds, which led him to suspect the formation of prussic acid. During the solution in nitric acid a portion of benzoic acid sublimes. By repeated digestions it is converted into artificial tannin. It is totally soluble in alcohol, from which water separates the whole of it, except the benzoic acid. TOLUIFERA, the balsam of Tolu tree, a genus of plants belonging to the class of decandria and order of monogynia. There is only one species, viz. T. balsamum. This tree grows to a considerable height; it sends off numerous large branches, and is covered with rough, thick, grayish bark; the leaves are elliptical or ovate, entire, pointed, alternate, of a light green color, and stand upon short strong foot-stalks; the flowers are numerous, and produced in lateral racemi; the calyx is bell-shaped, divided at the brim into five teeth, which are nearly equal, but one is projected to a greater distance than the others; the petals are inserted into the receptacle, of which four are equal, linear, and a little longer than the calyx; the fifth is much the largest, inversely heart-shaped, and its unguis is of the length of the calyx; the ten filaments are very short, and furnished with long antheræ ; the germen is oblong; there is no style; the stigma is pointed; the fruit is a round berry. The balsam is obtained by making incisions in the bark of the tree, and is collected into spoons, which are made of black wax, from which it is poured into proper vessels. This balsam is of a reddish yellow color, transparent, in consistence thick and tenacious; by age it grows so hard and brittle that it may be rubbed into a powder between the finger and thumb. Its smell is extremely fragrant, somewhat resembling that of lemons; its taste is warm and sweetish, and on being chewed it adheres to the teeth. Thrown into the fire it immediately liquifies, takes flame, and disperses its agreeable odour. Though it does not dissolve in water, yet if boiled in it for two or three hours in a covered vessel, the water receives its odoriferous smell; water also suffers a similar impregnation from the balsam by distillation. With the assistance of mucilage it unites with water so as to form a milky solution. It dissolves entirely in spirit of wine, and easily mixes with distilled oils, but less easily with expressed oils. Distilled without addition it produces not only an empyreumatic oil of a pale dark color, but sometimes a small portion of a saline matter, similar to that of the flowers of benzoin. This balsam possesses the same general virtues with the balsam of Gilead and that of Peru; it is, however, less heating and stimulating, and may therefore be employed with more safety. It has been chiefly used as a pectoral, and is said to be an efficacious corroborant in gleets and seminal weaknesses. It is directed by the Pharmacopoeias in the syrupus tolutanus, tinctura tolutana, and syrupus balsamicus. See PHARMACY, Index. TOLUTATION, n. s. Lat. toluto. The act of pacing or ambling. Browne. They move per latera, that is, two legs of one side together, which is tolutation or ambling. They rode; but authors having not Determined whether pace or trot, That is to say, whether tolutation, As they do term't, or succussation, We leave it. Hudibras. TOMB includes both the grave or sepulchre wherein a defunct is interred, and the monument erected to preserve his memory. The word is formed from the Greek Typßog, tumulus, a sepulchre; or, according to Menage, from the Latin tumba, which signifies the same. In many nations it has been customary to burn the bodies of the dead; and to collect the ashes with pious care into an urn, which was deposited in a tomb or sepulchre. See BURIAL. Among many nations it has also been the practice to lay the dead body in a tomb without consuming it, after having wrapped it up decently and sometimes placing it in a coffin. The tombs of the Jews were generally hollow places hewn out of a rock. The Egyptians also buried their dead in caves called catacombs. See CATACOMB. The pyramids, as some think, were also employed for the same purpose. Sometimes also after embalming their dead they placed them in niches in some magnificent apartment in their houses. A tomb of the Persians is a circular building, open at top, about fifty-five feet diameter and twenty-five feet in height, filled to within five feet of the top, excepting a well of fifteen feet diameter in the centre. The part so filled is terraced, with a slight declivity toward the well. Two circular grooves three inches deep are raised round the well; the first at the distance of four, the second at ten, feet from the well. Grooves of the like depth or height, and four feet distant from each other at the outer part of the outer circle, are carried straight from the wall to the well, communicating with the circular ones, for the purpose of carrying off the water, &c. The tomb is thus divided into three circles of partitions; the outer about seven feet by four; the middle six by three; the inner four by two; the outer for the men, the middle for the women, the inner for the children; in which the bodies are respectively placed, wrapped loosely in a piece of cloth, and left to be devoured by the vultures, which is very soon done. The friends of the deceased come at the proper time and throw the bones into the well. The entrance is closed by an iron door, four feet square, on the eastern side, as high up as the terrace, to which a road is raised. Upon the wall, above the door, an additional wall is raised to prevent people from looking into the tomb, which the Persees are particularly careful to prevent. A Persian inscription is on a stone inserted over the door. From the bottom of the wall subterraneous passages lead to receive the bones, &c., and prevent the well from filling. Of the ancient sepulchres found in Russia and Siberia some are perfect tumuli raised to an enormous height, while others are almost level with the ground. Some of them are encompassed with a square wall of large quarry stones placed in an erect position; others are covered only with a small heap of stones, or they are tumuli adorned with stones at top. Some are mured with brick within and vaulted over; others are no more than pits or common graves. In some the earth is excavated several fathoms deep; others, and especially those which are topped by a lofty tumulus, are only dug of a sufficient depth for covering the carcase. Urns are never met with here; but sometimes what remained of the bodies after the combustion, and even whole carcasses, are found wrapped up in thin plates of gold. The Moors hold it an irreverent thing to bury their dead in mosques. The burial grounds of all Mahometans are mostly without the city, and they inter the dead at the hour set apart for prayer. Their tombs are exceedingly simple, and have no pretensions to architectural elegance. Among the northern nations it was customary to bury their dead under heaps of stones called cairns, or under barrows. The inhabitants of Tibet, it is said, neither bury nor burn their dead, but expose them on the tops of the mountains. TOMBAC, sometimes called white copper, is in fact a white alloy of copper with arsenic, commonly brittle, though, if the quantity of arsenic be small, it is both ductile and malleable in a certain degree. TOM BOY, n. s. Tom, a diminutive of Thomas, and boy. A mean fellow; sometimes wild coarse girl. A lady Fastened to an empery, to be partnered Shakspeare TOMBUCTOO, a large city of Central Africa, which has for many centuries been the emporium of the interior trade of that continent. This circumstance, ever since the rise of discovery and commercial enterprise, has excited in Europe an eager desire to visit and establish an intercourse with it. Although, however, it be reached by native caravans from every extremity of the continent, all attempts made during 300 years by European merchants and travellers have been until very lately completely baffled. Being unable, therefore, to furnish any connected or fully authenticated description, we have nothing left but to collect into one view the detached notices which have been received. Leo Africanus, in 1500, is the first who gives a description of this city, which, as a merchant, he had visited twice; and though his account be now antiquated, yet, being the first which has ever been given by an intelligent eye-witness, it is still of some value. Tombuctoo is said to have been founded in the year of the Hegira 610 (1215 A. D.), by a king called Mense Suleiman. Under his successor, named Izchia, Tombuctoo had extended its dominion over all the neighbouring states, of which the principal were Ghinea or Genni, Cassina, Guber, Zanfara, and Cano. In his time also it seems to have acquired that commercial prosperity for which it has ever since been distinguished. The city contained many shops of artizans and merchants, and particularly numerous manufacturers of cotton cloth. There were in it many persons of great opulence, particularly foreign merchants, two of whom were reckoned so considerable by their wealth, that the king had given them his daughters in marriage. The surrounding country abounded both in grain and in pasture for cattle, whence a copious supply of milk and butter was afforded; yet neither garden nor orchard, he says, was cultivated round the city. Salt was the article of which the scarcity was most felt, there being none except what was brought from Tegazza, at the distance of 500 miles, and sold at an enormous price. The king possessed an ample treasure, and held a very splendid and well-regulated court. When he went abroad, in state, he was mounted upon camels; but in war he and his nobles rode always on horseback. Great care was taken to keep his stud in good condition; and, as all horses of good quality were imported from Barbary, the merchants who bought them were obliged to give the king the first choice, and received from him a handsome price. The army consisted of 3000 cavalry, and a numerous infantry, many of whom used poisoned arrows. The king honored greatly letters and learned men; he gave ample salaries to judges, doctors, and priests, and paid such large prices for MSS. brought from Barbary, that these were reckoned among the most profitable articles of trade. The houses of the ordinary inhabitants appear to have been built in a somewhat humble style. They were in the form of bells; the walls composed of stakes or hurdles, and the roofs of interwoven reeds. Stone, however, had been used in the construction of the principal mosque, and of the royal palace, the latter of which was designed by an artist from Granada. The city was extremely exposed to fire; and Leo, in one of his visits, had seen half of it consumed by a single conflagration. Water was supplied from numerous wells; besides which, the waters of the Niger, when they overflowed, were conveyed through the town by sluices. The inhabitants were mild, courteous, and gay; and a great part of the night was often consumed in dancing and singing. The Jews, however, were the object of a most rigorous persecution. Such is the description given of Tombuctoo, during the period, probably, of its greatest glory. It of course attracted the notice of the Portuguese when they carried their career of discovery along the western coast of Asia. They are even said to have sent embassies to the king; though it may be doubted, from the geographical position assigned, whether some other place was not here mistaken for Tombuctoo. It is, however, accurately described by Di Barros, as situated three leagues to the north of the Niger, as a great mart for gold, and resorted to by merchants from Cairo, Tunis, Morocco, Fez, and all the kingdoms of northern Africa. The French now directed their exertions to penetrate into the interior of Africa, from the Senegal, then generally believed to be the same river with the Niger. From the native merchants, who came through Bambarra, they learned the existence of the lake Dibbie, under the name of Maberia of the well watered territory of Ghingala (Jinbala of Park); and the position of Tombuctoo on the river beyond it. A large caravan of white men, with fire-arms, justly conjectured to be the Moors from Barbary, were stated to arrive annually for the purposes of trade. It was added that large barks with masts had been seen in the river near Tombuctoo. These were erroneously supposed to belong to the Tripoli merchants; but, from Mr. Jackson's account, were probably those of a people inhabiting the banks of the Niger, farther to the eastward. But no French mission, either military or exploratory, ever extended beyond the banks of the Senegal; consequently none attained the frontier of Bambarra. The first British efforts in this direction were made by the Gambia, then supposed to be also a branch of the Niger; but Jobson and Stibbs could not reach higher than the neighbourhood of Tenda; and their reports went only to discourage the idea of penetrating into the interior by this channel. All former achievements, however, were eclipsed by those of Park, who penetrated (see our article AFRICA) nearly 1000 miles beyond all the former limits of French or English discovery; but the pressure of disasters compelled him to stop considerably short of Tombuctoo. He learned that a kingdom of this name lay beyond that of Masina, which extended along the lake Dibbie, and bordered on the eastern frontier of Bambarra. The city lay about a day's journey to the north of the Niger; while its port, Cabra, was situated at the point of junction between the two branches of that river which issue out of the lake Dibbie. The government was stated to be in the hands of the Moors, who were more intolerent there than in any other country. A respectable negro told Mr. Park that, when he first visited Tombuctoo, the landlord with whom he lodged conducted him to his hut, on the floor of which there was a mat and a rope, and thus addressed him:-'If you are a Mussulman you are my friend; sit down: but if you are a kafir, you are my slave, and with this rope I will lead you to market.' The king of Tombuctoo was named Abu Abrahima. It is stated, by Mr. Cahill from Rabat, and by Mr. Jackson from Mogodore, that some years after Park's journey, the king of Bambarra conquered Tombuctoo, and established there a negro government. The Moors, however, were not only permitted to reside and carry on their trade, but the internal police of the city was left in their hands. All religions are tolerated except the Jewish. Tombuctoo is described by Mr. Jackson as twelve miles in circumference, situated in a plain, encircled by sandy eminences. It is not surrounded by walls. The houses are spacious, built in a quadrangular form, but have no upper rooms, and even no windows, being entirely lighted from the doors, which are wide and lofty. The profits on the trade to Tombuctoo were said to be so great, that 5000 dollars, invested in European commodities at Mogodore or Fez, would, in a year or two, produce a return of 20,000. Tombuctoo appears to Adams to stand on nearly the same extent of ground as Lisbon, though the population is probably much less, as the houses are built in a very scattered manner. The king and all his principal officers were negro, and Tombuctoo appeared to Adams completely a negro city. No Moors were allowed to reside, or even to enter it, unless in small parties. Instead of an intolerant exclusion of every other religion except the Mahometan, he saw no mosques, nor any appearance of the rites of that religion being practised. This circumstance, which contrasts so singularly with Park's account, may, however, be connected with the revolutions which from other quarters we find stated to have taken place in the destinies of Tombuctoo. A further explanation may perhaps be found in the statement of Riley, that there was a separate city to which the Moors were confined. Adams does not describe the pomp of Tombuctoo in very lofty terms. The king's palace consists merely of a square space, enclosed by a mud wall, and containing eight small apartments on the ground floor. The houses of the chief citizens were built of wooden cases filled with clay and sand, and had only one story. The huts of the poorer class consisted merely of branches of trees bent in a circle, covered with a matting of palmeto and overlaid with earth. The king and queen wore dresses of blue nankeen, profusely ornamented with gold and ivory. These ornaments were much sought for by the people in general, but were not combined with much cleanliness, since a change of dress once in the week was considered a luxury of the great. The food consisted chiefly of maize, ground into flour, and boiled into a thick mess, over which goat's milk was then poured, forming what is called kouskous. Persons of all ranks sat round and ate it with their fingers, without spoon, knife, or fork, according to the universal practice of Africa. Adams further describes Tombuctoo as situated immediately upon a river called the Mar Zarah, about three-quarters of a mile wide, and flowing, as he firmly believes, to the south-west. About two miles south of the town it passes between high mountains, where its breadth is contracted to half a mile. This cannot be the Niger itself, but a tributary to it, and the opposite direction in which it flows is probably one source of the contradictory statements as to the course of that great river. Adams, however, whose observations were exceedingly limited, does not appear to have known any thing of the Niger. The Mar Zarah was navigated by canoes composed of fig trees hollowed out. They set out occasionally by ten or twenty at a time for slaves and merchandize. The hunting of slaves appears to be reduced to a regular system. About once a month a party of armed men, consisting of 100, and sometimes as many as 500, marched out with this object. They went to the countries in the south and south-west, and, after a few weeks absence, used to bring in considerable numbers. The slaves thus procured, along with gold dust, ivory, gum, cowries, ostrich feathers, and goat skins, are exchanged with the Moors for tobacco, tar, gunpowder, blue nankeens, blankets, earthen jars, and some silks. A more recent account is contained in the narrative of Riley, an American captain, who in 1815 suffered shipwreck on the coast of the Sahara. His information is entirely derived from Sidi Hamet, an African merchant, by whom he was purchased and brought to Mogodore. According to him Tombuctoo is a large town, six times as populous as Mogodore. The population is entirely negro, and no Moor is allowed to enter, unless fifty at a time unarmed from each caravan. He stated, however, what seems to have entirely escaped the notice of Adams, that there was a distinct town, divided from the other by a strong partition wall, which formed the residence of those Mussulmen who were permitted to remain at Tombuctoo. A strong wall, composed of stone mixed with clay, surrounds the city, which is entered by four gates that are shut during the night. The palace is extensive, lofty, and composed of the same materials as the wall. Most of the habitations are built of reeds, though there are also a number of stone houses. A small river runs close to the town; but at the distance of an hour's ride of a camel is the great river called Zolibib, evidently the Joliba of Park. A still later account of Tombuctoo is that collected by captain Lyon during his residence in Fezzan. From the description given to him by the merchants, it did not appear so large a town as had been supposed; and some represented it as not more extensive than Mourzouk. It is walled, the houses very low, and, with the exception of one or two small streets, built irregularly. Many of the habitations are mere huts, composed of mats. The immense population which some have ascribed to it is accounted for by supposing that they included the Kafilas, who arrived there in great numbers, and, being often obliged to remain during the rainy season, erected temporary huts. Cabra its port was described as rather a collection of store houses than a town. The Nile, or Goulbi (Joliba), is there very broad; and, though in the dry season it may be forded by a camel, after the rains it becomes deep, rapid, and dangerous. The king is hereditary, but has little power. The trade consists in gold (brought from Jenne), cotton cloths, leather, and arms manufactured in Tombuctoo and the neighbouring villages. There exists to the south a nation of Jews, who, from their color and difference in customs from the Moors, have sometimes been supposed to be Christians. Tombuctoo has a language peculiar to itself. We have now only to add that major Laing, having previously distinguished himself by his researches hn the western coast of AFRICA (see that article), penetrated across the desert from Tripoli to Tombuctoo, where he spent two months; that he wrote from this place a letter to his relations, and spoke of being busy in searching the records of the town. Previously to that he had been attacked and desperately wounded in the desert by the Tuaricks; shortly after the sheik was commanded by the Foulahs to expel him, and he was murdered in the neighbourhood. It is impossible even now to fix the precise position of Tombuctoo. Our maps usually place it in about long. 1° 20′ E., lat. 17° N.; or about 1100 miles in the interior, from the mouth of the Senega.. TOME, n. s. Fr. tome; Gr. τόμος. One volume of many; a book. All those venerable books of scripture, all those sacred tomes and volumes of holy writ, are with such absolute perfection framed. Hooker. |