of Gliubotin, Argentaro, Despoto Dag, Teckiri Dag, and Balkan. The eastern half is the ancient Hamus. This great range is connected with the Carpathians by a chain which, running northward, separates Servia from Bulgaria. On the south side it sends out secondary ranges, which traverse Albania, and extend through the whole of Greece, containing a number of names familiar to classical readers, such as Ossa, Pelion, Olympus, Parnassus, Oeta, Helicon, Pindus, and Taygetus. The Thracian mountains of Rhodope belong to the great chain.

The chief rivers in the north of Turkey, after the Danube, are the Pruth, Sereth, and Aluta, which flow into that great receptacle from the north; the Morava and the Save, which join it from the west and south. Other rivers, inferior to these, but of considerable size, run northward from the Hamus ridge into the Danube. On the south side of that great range the outlet is the Archipelago; and the principal rivers the Marizza and the Vardar, the Hebrus and the Strymon of the ancients. Of the rivers in the west of Turkey, the principal are the Drino, the Narenta, the Vieza; in Albania, the largest is the Achelous. The lakes in Turkey are not considerable: the principal are those of Rosoura in Moldavia, Scutari in Albania, Ochrida between that country and Macedon, and Copais in Baotia, which still emits the proverbial fogs of that country. The gulfs and bays are extremely nu

merous.

The products of Greece, and the maritime districts of Turkey in Europe, are sufficiently known; but with the mineralogy and botany of the interior we are perhaps less acquainted than with those of the wilds of America. When explored, they will probably be found rich in both vegetable and animal products-in quarries of marble, mines of iron, salt, sulphur, alum, nitre. Chestnuts, apples, pears, are found only in the northern provinces. The southern produce oranges, raisins, olives, figs, and almonds. The grape succeeds in almost every part of the empire, and wheat, maize, rice, cotton, silk, and tobacco, are all indigenous.

Among the animals, the horses of Thessaly have long been famous; and those of Walachia improve by a mixture with Tartar breeds. Cattle and horses are reared in almost every part of the empire. The goat is a useful animal in the mountains, and the ass and mule are like those of Italy. Bees abound in a wild state. In game no country is more abundant.

The government, we need hardly say, is despotic, the power of the sultan being unchecked by any representative body, though virtually restrained by the ordinances of the Koran, and the decisions of the ulema and mufti. He is farther restricted by certain usages which have the force of law, and an infraction of which might prompt to insurrection. But neither these ordinances nor usages protect the property of public individuals. To this the sultan is heir in the eye of the law, and may exercise his power over their lives and properties without any dread of discontent. The grand vizier, or prime minister, is by his office commander of the forces: when in the field, his functions at court are discharged

by a caimacan or deputy. The divan was formerly composed of six pachas; but Selim III. changed its constitution, and it is now limited to the mufti, the vizier, and the kioga bey, who is the lieutenant of the vizier. The other ministers are the reis effendi, whose office corresponds in part to that of the chancellor, in part to that of the secretary for foreign affairs, in Britain. The finance minister is called tefterdar; the master of the ordnance tschelebi: the latter is also receiver general of the taxes. The minister of marine is styled terræna emini; the secretary of state tschiaus bacchi. To these are added, in meetings of council, two persons who have held respectively the stations of reis effendi and tefterdar. On extraordinary occasions the capitan pacha and the kiaya of the sultana validi, or queen mother, are called in.

The pachas who are governors of provinces, by a strange mixture of powers, act as farmersgeneral of the revenue, and a pacha of the first class, òr, as he is termed, of three tails, has the right to punish capitally any subordinate functionary. A pacha of two tails must in such a case go through the form of a trial. The lieutenant or deputy of the pacha is styled mutzelin. A waywode is merely the governor of a provincial town, or of one of the districts which do not belong to a pachalic, but form an appanage of some member of the reigning family. The sangiac beys are the governors of districts under the pachas. The chief check to their power is from the ulema, whose station is in the capital, and who explain both the political and religious part of the law.

Though Turkey has hardly any hereditary nobility, the emirs and scheriffs who can trace their genealogy to Mahomet, like the descendants of the celebrated viziers, Ibrahim Khan Oglou, and Achmed Kiuprili, enjoy certain privileges. Christians and Jews are regarded as inimical persons, to be governed by coercion. Walachians, Moldavians, and Servians, are considered tributary allies. The governors of these provinces are princes of the Greek religion, dependent on the Porte.

The imans or priests are a body altogether inferior to, and distinct from, the ulema, their duty being merely to perform public worship; but every law promulgated by the sultan, every de claration of war, must be sanctioned by a fetva, or act of approbation, from the mufti, who, in addition to other functions, has that of presenting annually to the sultan a list of persons to fill the two high judicial stations of kadileskar of Europe, and kadileskar of Asia. These officers remain in place only a year. The stambol effendi is chief judge at Constantinople. The mullahs are an intermediate order between the kadis and the kadileskar. The grand vizier is the official head of the administration of justice; but transmits questions to the regular courts. An appeal from a lower to a higher jurisdiction is unknown in this country: the kadi passes a sentence of fine, imprisonment, and even of death, without any restraint but an apprehension of complaint to his superiors. In many cases a decision is obtained only by bribery, and in others presents to the judges are made from time to time, to ward oft

the injury that would attend upon justice. To counteract this oppressive system, the inhabitants of towns generally form themselves into an association, which makes a point of attending in court in the case of any suit carried on for or against its members, and of not withdrawing until the witnesses are examined. The people have also the right of naming certain officers called in the towns ayams, in the villages kiayas, who, in a case of grievance, are authorised to call together the principal inhabitants. Christians and Jews are also incorporated, but remain more at the mercy of the executive branch than their Turkish fellow subjects.

The religion of the Turks is that of the Mahometan sect of Omar, and the rule of faith the Koran. Their fasts are frequent and rigorous. The ablutions are also very frequent, being prompted by the warmth of the climate, and enjoined by the creed as necessary after a variety of occupations. Polygamy, though permitted, is seldom practised; but the rich keep concubines. The population seems to receive little or no periodical increase.

The personal appearance of the Turks is fine and striking dark eyes, an aquiline nose, limbs in general well proportioned, are set off to advantage by a dress which forms a medium between the strait clothing of Europe and the flowing robes of Asia. Their gait is slow and stately, their mode of speaking clear and deliberate, and their whole air solemn and manly. Their character presents a curious mixture of good and bad; temperate in eating and drinking, and simple in dress, and full of veneration for their laws and usages, no country presents more frequent examples of insurrection, and the indulgence of violent passions. Their religious tenets inspire them with contempt for those of a different creed; their despotic government with a blind submission to their superiors; and, on the other hand, they are hospitable, in a high degree courageous, and exempt in general from artifice and adulation. The lower ranks are almost devoid of education. The lawyer must be skilled in the Koran; the divine learned in the law. Hence the compound functions of the ulema; hence also the mixed education of youths intended for these professions. They are sent from the common schools, or mektebis, to the medresses or colleges established at the imperial mosques of Constantinople and Adrianople, where they find teachers ignorant of the rudiments of science, but familiar with the Koran, and with the laws deduced from the sacred volume. The youths undergo examinations, and receive degrees, such as sochta (student), muderri (head of a school), naib (secretary to a judge), kadi (judge), mullah (high judge), kiabe molaki (judge of Mecca), istambol effendi (magistrate of Constantinople), kadilaskar (military judge). Astronomy is here a fanciful system of judicial astrology; chemistry, a.chemy; and their grammar, rhetoric, and metaphysics, all equally remote from rational principles. Libraries and booksellers' shops are found hardly any where but in Constantinople, and their chief contents are oriental manuscripts. Statuary and painting are forbidden by their faith with navigation, engineering, fortification,

or the art of casting iron, the Turks are also very imperfectly acquainted: nothing can be more awkward than their wheel carriages; and even the arts of embroidery and carpet weaving, in which they have had most success, discover little progressive improvement.

The public revenue of Turkey, derived partly from a capitation tax on Christians and Jews, partly from duties on tobacco and other articles of consumption, is about £3,000,000 sterling, and the objects to which it is applied are the army, the navy, the fortifications, and the household of the sultan. The army is composed of a variety of troops; first of a kind of feudal corps, commanded by a gas, who have the investiture of certain fiefs called Timars and Zaim, held on condition of bringing into the field a specified number of horse and foot. The spahis are in general the sons of rich Turks, the expectants of the vacant charges of the agas. The Janissaries, a corps originally formed of Christians and prisoners of war, of late consisted entirely of Mahometans. The delibaches and selictars are corps attached to a particular pacha, who, when in the field, act as irregular.

Of their military character, the following account has been given by a modern French writer: The Turks are a nation that is natu rally warlike, whose armies are commanded by experienced generals, and are composed of bold and executive soldiers. They owe their know ledge of war, and their experience in tactics, to three national causes, two of which do credit to their intellects. In the first place they become inured to arms, from being bred to the profession from their earliest infancy; in the second, they are promoted upon the sole ground of merit, and by an uninterrupted gradation of rank; and in the third, they possess all the opportunities of learning the military art that constant practice and habitual warfare can afford. They are naturally robust, and constitutionally courageous, full of activity, and not at all enervated by the debaucheries of Europe, or the effeminacy of the east. Their predilection for war and enterprise grows out of the recollection of past victories, and is strengthened by the two most powerful incentives to human daring, viz. reward and punishment; the first of which is extremely attractive, because it is very great; and the other equally deterring, because it is rigorous in the extreme. Add to these the strong influence of a religion, which holds ont everlasting happiness, and seats near Mahomet in heaven, to all who die fighting for their country on the field of battle; and which further teaches them most implicitly to believe that every Turk bears inscribed upon his forehead his fatal moment, with the kind of death he must submit to, and that nothing human can alter his destiny. When any thing is to be carried into execution, the order they receive is absolute, free from every species of intervention or control, and emanating from one independent authority. The power which is entrusted to their generals (like that of the Romans to their dictators) is brief and comprehensive, viz.-Promote the interests of your country, or your sovereign.' See Essai sur la Science de la Guerre, tom. i. p. 207.

The Turkish navy is inconsiderable, and seldom, even in time of war, amounts to fifteen or sixteen sail of the line. Their principal dockyards are at Mitylene, Stanchio, Sinope, and Constantinople. Their vessels are navigated chiefly by Greeks or Algerines, the Turks serving only as gunners.

Alstedius and other chronologists, indeed, trace the origin of the Turkish empire from an earlier period; viz. from the rise of Mahomet's imposture, A. D. 621. See MAHOMET and SARACENS. But though their power and their conquests rapidly increased after that period, yet Ottoman, or Othman, is generally ranked as their first emperor, and the commencement of his reign placed in A. D. 1297. From him Turkey is often styled the Ottoman empire. After conquering Syria, Cappadocia, and the greater part of Asia, he died A. D. 1326, in the twenty-ninth year of his reign, and was succeeded by his son Orchan, who took Barsa and made it the seat of his empire. He died in the thirty-first year of his reign, A. D. 1357, and was succeeded by his son Amurath I. He reigned also thirty-one years, according to Alstedius, and was succeeded, A. D. 1388, by his son Bajazet I., who was taken prisoner by Tamerlane. After an interregnum of six years he was succeeded by his son Soliman I., A. D. 1403, who was murdered in his seventh year, A. D. 1410, by his brother Moses, who reigned only three years, and was succeeded by his brother Mohammed I., A. D. 1413. Mohammed, or Mahomet I., transferred the seat of empire to Adrianople; and, after a glorious reign of eight years, died in 1421, and was succeeded by his son Amurath II., who, after having reigned thirtyone years, died in 1452, and was succeeded by Mahomet II., surnamed the Great, of whose reign we now proceed to give the history.

In 1453 the Turks made themselves masters of Constantinople, which from that time became the capital of their empire. Mahomet II., then sultan, treated the inhabitants with the greatest cruelty. In 1454 he entered Servia at the head of 20,000 men, and obliged the inhabitants to pay him an annual tribute of 40,000 ducats. On his return to Adrianople, Mahomet repeopled the towns and villages about Constantinople with 4000 men and women whom he had taken; and going to that city built a palace eight stadia in compass. Next year a fleet was sent against the islands of Rhodes and Chios; but the attempt on both proved unsuccessful; however, the island Cos was reduced and some other places; after which the sultan, turning his arms towards Hungary, laid seige to Belgrade, which the celebrated John Hunniades obliged him to raise with considerable loss. He next set about the entire conquest of the Morea. The Grecian princes, among whom were two of the emperor's brothers, Thomas and Demetrius, were so terrified by the taking of Constantinople, and the great progress of the Turks, that they prepared to retire into Italy; upon which the Albanians seized on the country, choosing one Manual Cantacuzenus, a Greek, for their prince. Then falling on the Greeks who remained they made an offer to the sultan of the cities and fortresses, provided he would allow them to keep the open country.

At this time, however, the sultan chose rather to support the Greeks than to let the country fall into the hands of such barbarians; and, having defeated the Albanians, was content to accept of a tribute from the Greeks. But the danger was no sooner over than the Grecian princes revolted anew; upon which Mahomet entering the country with a powerful army, prince Thomas, with his family, fled to Italy; while Demetrius thought it most eligible to submit to the sultan, by whom he was carried away with many of the most considerable persons of Lacedæmon, Achaia, &c., where Turkish governors were appointed. 2000 families were also carried away from the Morea in order to be settled at Constantinople, and 2000 young men to be enrolled among the sultan's troops. Many cities at this time fell into the hands of the Turks, among which the principal were Corinth and Athens. The Greeks, however, still made some faint struggles, but all in vain; for, by the year 1459, the whole country was subdued, excepting some maritime places held by the Venetians; and prince Thomas was obliged finally to take up his abode at Rome, where he was lodged in the pope's palace and had a pension of 3000 livres a year allowed him. Mahomet now pursued his good fortune, and, having made war on the emperor of Trebizond, he subdued his dominions and put him to death. His career, however, was for some time stopped by Scanderbeg, the Epirote. This prince had already defeated an army of 12,000 Turkish horse, of whom only 5000 escaped the slaughter, and dispersed another, with the loss of their general and 4120 men killed on the spot. Encouraged by this success he laid siege to Belgrade which was now in the hands of the Turks; but, through the treachery of his scouts, his army was defeated, and 5000 of his men killed; upon which one of his generals, named Moses, went over to the Turks. Scanderbeg, not at all dispirited by this misfortune, prosecuted the war with the utmost vigor. His first enterprise was against his perfidious general Moses, who had been immediately put at the head of an army by the sultan. This army was by Scanderbeg totally destroyed, excepting about 4000 men; upon which Moses fell into such disgrace with the Turks that he returned to his old master, who forgave his treachery, and restored him to all his former posts. The bad success of Moses did not prevent Amesa, the nephew of Scanderbeg, from following his example. Mahomet received him kindly, and sent him with Ishak, bashaw of Constantinople, whom he entrusted with an army of 50,000 men against his uncle. Scanderbeg, with only 6000 men, retired towards Lyssa, a maritime city of the Venetians. The Turks pursued contrary to the advice of Amesa; and, being surprised by Scanderbeg, were utterly defeated with the loss of their camp, 20,000, or, according to others, 30,000 men killed on the spot, and the treacherous Amesa taken prisoner. With the like good fortune Scanderbeg defeated three other Turkish armies, one of 20,000, another of 30,000, and the third of 18,000 men. On this Mahomet sent against him an old experienced commander at the head of 40,000 chosen troops; but as he

likewise was able to achieve nothing, the sultan thought proper to conclude a peace with Scanderbeg in 1461. Mahomet, being thus freed from such a troublesome enemy, completed the conquest of the Greek islands; subdued Walachia, Bosnia, and Illyria, extending his empire nearly to the confines of Italy. But, as it was easy to see that no conquests would satisfy the Turkish ambition, the Venetians, who found themselves ill treated by their warlike neighbours, entered into an alliance with the Hungarians to repress the overgrown power of the Turks, and prevent the western parts of the word from being totally overrun by them; and into this alliance Scanderbeg was soon drawn, notwithstanding his treaty with Mahomet already mentioned. The Hungarians invaded the Turkish dominions on the west side, defeated some troops, and carried off 20,000 slaves; the Venetians invaded the Morea, where they made some conquests, but were soon obliged to abandon them however they recovered the island of Lemnos; but, being defeated in two engagements at land, they were obliged to solicit assistance from France, Germany, and Spain. Having obtained considerable supplies from those parts, they again entered the Morea; but, meeting with still worse success than before, they applied for assistance to Matthias the son of John Hunniades king of Hungary. Matthias willingly made another incursion into the Turkish dominions, ravaged Servia, and carried off a vast number of prisoners with a great booty. In the mean time, Mahomet, fearing lest Scanderbeg should be declared generalissimo of the Christian forces, sent to him, desiring a renewal of the league between them. But, this being refused, the war was renewed with the utmost vigor. Many Turkish armies were sent against this hero; but they were utterly defeated and dispersed, till 1466, when by his death the sultan was freed from the most formidable enemy he had ever encountered. See SCANDERBEG. The death of Scanderbeg was followed by the entire reduction of Epirus and Albania. The Venetians in 1469 defeated the Turks in a pitched battle; but were driven out of Negropont, at that time the strongest city in Europe, after which they entered into an alliance with Ferdinand king of Naples, Louis king of Cyprus, and the grand master of Rhodes, at the same time that they sent ambassadors to Uzun Hassan king of Persia, in order to persuade him to attack the Turkish dominions on the east side. Mahomet did not lose his courage at the number of his enemies; but, having defeated the Persians, reduced the Venetians to such distress that they were obliged to conclude a treaty in 1479. In 1481 the war was renewed, and the city of Rhodes besieged, but without success; however, the city of Cephalonia was taken from the Venetians, Italy invaded, and the city of Otranto taken. This was the last of the exploits of Mahomet II., who died this year of the gout, and was succeeded by his son Bajazet. II.

Under this prince a war commenced with the Mamelukes of Egypt; which, under his successor Selim I., ended in the total subjection of that country. See EGYPT. Bajazet, however,

greatly facilitated Selim's conquest by the reduction of Circassia, whence the Mamelukes drew their principal resources. Caramania and Croatia were totally reduced; the cities of Lepanto, Modon, and Durazzo, taken by the Turks, though the Venetians recovered Cephalonia; Syria on the east, and Moldavia on the west, were invaded and ravaged by the victorious armies of the sultan; till at last a peace was concluded with the European powers in 1503. The year 1509 is remarkable for a dreadful earthquake at Constantinople, which overturned a great number of houses, and destroyed 13,000 people; being also followed by an epidemic distemper, which carried off great numbers. About this time also the sultan, finding the infirmities of old age drawing on, and being desirous of passing the remainder of his days in quiet, resolved to resign the throne to his eldest son Achmet. But having engaged in this affair with too great precipitation, and before he had gained over the grandees, his second son Selim, whom he had made governor of Trebizond, hastily crossing the Euxine Sea, dethroned and put to death his father, in 1512.

This monster, who had not scrupled to sacrifice his father to his ambition, did not hesitate at establishing himself upon the throne by the death of his brother also. Accordingly, as Achmed, knowing he could be no where safe, resolved to stand on his defence, Selim with a powerful army marched against him; and, having defeated the few forces of his brother, took him prisoner and put him to death. Having thus secured himself, he marched against the Persians, whom he overthrew in a great battle: after which he took the city of Tauris; made some other conquests; and, having secured tranquillity on the east side of his dominions, turned his arms against Sultan Gauri of Egypt. His farther designs of conquest were frustrated by his death, which happened in 1519.

Selim was succeeded by his son Soliman II., surnamed the Magnificent, who proved no less ambitious and warlike than his father. Having defeated and killed the governor of Damascus, who had rebelled against him, he attacked the European princes with a design to extend his dominions as far to the westward as he possessed to the eastward of his capital. In 1520 he set out with a great army to conquer Hungary. The city of Belgrade was immediately invested, and in a short time taken. Rhodes also, being attacked by a great force by sea and land, was obliged to submit, after a most desperate resistance (see RHODES, and SOLIMAN II.), and Soliman entered the city in triumph on Christmas day 1522. His conquests for some time were stopped by a rebellion in Egypt; but, this being soon quashed, the war with Hungary was renewed in 1525. King Louis, having rashly engaged the Turkish army of 200,000 men with only 25,000, was utterly defeated, himself drowned in a ditch, and his whole army, excepting a few horse, cut in pieces. This defeat was followed by the surrender of Buda, which, however, the Hungarians retook in 1528; but in 1529 it was again taken by the Turks, and soon after both the Moldavias submitted to their