from it as to bound or comprehend the excur-
sions of the sun and planets. See ASTRONOMY,
Index. It is a curious enough fact that the solar
division of the Indian zodiac is the same in sub-
stance with that of the Greeks, and yet that it has
not been borrowed either from the Greeks or the
Arabians. The identity, or at least striking simi-
larity, of the division, is universally known; and
M. Montucla has endeavoured to prove that the
Brahmins received it from the Arabs. His opinion,
we believe, has been very generally admitted; but,
in the second volume of the Asiatic Researches,
the accomplished president Sir William Jones has
proved unanswerably that neither of those nations
borrowed that division from the other; that it has
been known among the Hindoos from time imme-
morial; and that it was probably invented by the
first progenitors of that race, whom he considers
as the most ancient of mankind, before their dis-
persion. The question is not of importance suffi-
ciently general, straitened as we are by the limits
prescribed us, for our entering into the dispute;
but we think it our duty to mention it, that our
astronomical readers, if they think it worth their
while, may have recourse to the original writers for
further information.

ZOE, the fourth wife of the emperor Leo VI.,
and mother of Constantine VIII., during whose
minority she governed the empire with great pro-
priety; quelled the revolt of Constantine Ducas;
obliged the Bulgarians to return to their own
country; and made peace with the Saracens. Her
ungrateful son Constantine, when he succeeded,
banished this excellent empress, and she died in
exile.

ZOE, the daughter of Constantine X., and wife
of Romanus III., surnamed Argyrus, whom she
murdered in 1034 to marry Michael IV., after
whose death in 1041 she married Constantine XI.,
surnamed Monomachus. She died in 1050.

ZOEGA (George), was born at Kiel in Danish
Holstein in the year 1751, and became a distin-
guished philologist. He went to Italy in 1777,
and in 1779 came to reside at Rome, where he re-
mained during the space of twenty-nine years. In
1787 he published a Catalogue Raisonné of the im-
perial medals struck at Alexandria, which did great
honor to his industry and talents, and laid the
foundation of his literary fame. The pope, Pius
VI., about that time had just embellished the city
with several Egyptian monuments, which had been
concealed in the earth for upwards of twelve cen-
turies. He applied to Zoega to write a dissertation
on the obelisks. To this interesting enquiry he
directed his attention with his usual zeal and indus-
try. In 1797 his book de Origine et Usu Obelis-
corum was ready for the press, but was not pub-
lished when, in 1799, he was subjected to the
greatest privations by the war which overthrew
the papal government, and established an ephe-
meral republic. Yet, under the pressure of
poverty, and subject to frequent attacks of a dis-
ease in the chest, he continued his researches into
antiquity. It was then that he prepared his dis-
sertation concerning Lycurgus and the Menades,
which was soon after read in the Roman Institute,
of which he became a member. In 1801 the situ-
ation of Zoega was so wretched that he determined
to return to Holstein. From this he was happily
prevented by the good offices of M. de Schubart,
envoy from Denmark to Italy. The king of Den-

For

mark, through his influence, was pleased to appoint
Zoega librarian and professor in the university of
Kiel, with the usual emoluments, and with special
permission to continue his residence at Rome.
Zoega was well acquainted with the ancient lan-
guages, and more than ordinarily skilled in the
principal modern tongues. He wrote in Latin with
the utmost facility, and in Italian with all the
graces of a native Tuscan: he was also a perfect
master of French, English, and German.
many years he was afflicted with a pulmonary
complaint, aggravated by his studious life. He
died at the age of fifty-eight, of a nervo-bilious fever,
to the great loss of literature and regret of learned
men. His manners were amiable, and he was ex-
tremely communicative of his knowledge in con-
versation. He was the instructor of his own chil-
dren. His wife, to whom he was tenderly attached,
died before him; which probably contributed to
shorten his own life. He was a member of the
Italian academy, as well as of the academies of
Copenhagen, Goettingen, Berlin, Florence, Sienna,
Rome, &c.; and he had, just before his death, been
appointed a knight of the order of Danebrog.

ZOEGEA, in botany, a genus of plants of the
class syngenesia, and order polygamia frustranea.
The receptacle is bristly; the pappus setaceous;
the corollulæ of the radius ligulated; the calyx im-
bricated. There are two species, viz. 1. Z. Capensis,
the Cape zoegea; a native of the Cape of Good
Hope: and 2. Z. leptaurea, another foreign species.

ZOILUS, a rhetorician, sophist, and grammarian
of Amphipolis in Thrace, who flourished about
A. A. C. 260 or 270. He criticised the Iliad of
Homer and the works of Isocrates with such seve-
rity, that he was called Homeromastix, or the
Chastiser of Homer, and the Dog; and his name
has been ever since applied to all snarling critics.
He presented his criticisms to Ptolemy Philadel-
phus, who rejected them with contempt, and some
say put him to death; but this seems not agreeable
to Ptolemy's liberal character.

ZOISITE, a sub-species of prismatoidal augite,.
which is divided into two kinds, the common and
friable.

1. Common zoisite.-Color yellowish-gray. Mas-
sive, in granular and prismatic concretions, and
crystallised in very oblique four-sided prisms, in
which the obtuse lateral edges are often rounded,
so that the crystals have a reed-like form. Shining,
or glistening and resino pearly. Cleavage double.
Fracture small grained uneven. Feebly translucent.
As hard as epidote. Very easily frangible. Specific
gravity 3.3. It is affected by the blowpipe, as
epidote. Its constituents are, silica 43, alumina
29, lime 21, oxide of iron 3.-Klaproth. At the
Saulp, in Carinthia, it is found imbedded in a bed
of quartz, along with eyanite, garnet, and augite;
or it takes the place of felspar in a granular rock,
composed of quartz and mica. It is found in
Glen-Elg in Inverness-shire, and in Shetland.

2. Friable zoisite.-Color reddish-white, which
is spotted with pale peach-blossom red. Massive,
and in very fine loosely aggregated granular con-
cretions. Feebly glimmering. Fracture interme-
diate between earthy and splintery. Translucent
on the edges. Semi-hard. Brittle. Specific gravity
3.3. Its constituents are, silica 44, alumina 32,
lime 20, oxide of iron 2.5.-Klaproth. It occurs
imbedded in green talc, at Radelgraben, in Carin-
thia.

ZOLLIKOFER (George Joachim), a learned Swiss Protestant divine, born in 1730, and educated at Bremen and Utrecht. After preaching in Pays de Vaud, he settled at Monstein, in the Grisons country; next at Isenburg; and in 1758 at Leipsic. He wrote A Book of Devotions, and 2 vols. of Sermons; both translated into English. He died in 1788.

ZONARAS (John), a learned Greek historian, who was employed in state affairs at the court of Constantinople. He wrote A Chronicle or Annals from the Creation to A. D. 1118, in Greek; which were printed at Paris in 2 vols. folio, in 1686. He turned monk in his old days, and wrote Commentaries on the Apostolic Canons.

ZONCA (Victor), an eminent mathematician of Italy in the seventeenth century, who published a collection of curious inventions in mechanics, entitled Nuova Teatro di Machini et Edificii; Padua, 1621, folio.

ZONE, in geography and astronomy, is a division of the terraqueous globe with respect to the different degrees of heat found in the different parts thereof. See GEOGRAPHY.

ZONE, TORRID. See ASTRONOMY, and TORRID. Its breadth is 46° 58'. The equator, running through the middle of it, divides it into two equal parts, each containing 23° 29′. The ancients imagined the torrid zone uninhabitable.

ZONES, FRIGID, the zones within the polar circles, where frost and snow are perpetual. See ASTRONOMY, and GEOGRAPHY.

ZONES, TEMPERATE. See the references above. The breadth of each is 43° 2. The frigid zones are segments of the surface of the earth, terminated, one by the antarctic, and the other by the arctic circle. The breadth of each is 46° 58′.

a division of the earth.

True love is still the same: the torrid zones, And those more frigid ones,

It must not know.

Scarce the sun

Suckling.

One kind of locust stands not prone, or a little inclining upward; but in a large erectness, elevating the two fore legs, and sustaining itself in the middle of the other four, by zoographers called the prophet and pray. ing locust. Browne.

If we contemplate the end, its principal final cause being the glory of its Maker, this leads us into divinity; and for its subordinate, as it is designed for alimental sustenance to living creatures, and medicinal uses to man, we are thereby conducted into soography. Glanville.

ZOOLOGY The term zoologia is compounded of wov, a living creature, and Xoyoç, illative reasoning. The former is ultimately derived from Lew, ferveo, under which category all the vital manifestations fall, since a kindly fermentation is universally produced by the union of the principle of caloric with the appropriated fluids in the processes of animal life. The latter is from Aeyw, to collect or gather, and strictly implies the ingathering of the several elements of knowledge.

According to the full import of the term, therefore, zoology is that science which contemplates the attributes and the systematic arrangement of living creatures. As our limits are prescribed, and as many of the subjects pertaining to this department of knowledge have been already touched upon in the preceding volumes of this work, we shall here make it our main scope and object to exhibit the method, the rationale, and the proprieties of a general classification of living creatures, commencing with man, the most complicated in his organisation and vital functions; and in a descending scale of animal endowments pursue the series till it terminates in the eudora, a creature which from the extreme simplicity of its structure is nourished by absorption alone; and from time to time season the dryness of forms with some viridaria or green patches of natural history which have either fallen

under the writer's own observation, or bave been fresh drawn from recent sources.

In framing the groundwork of a system, it is obvious that a considerable stock of materials ought to be at the devotion of the founder, and it is no less apparent that the stability and amplitude of the superstructure will be proportioned to the quantity and goodness of the subsequent additions; it will not be amiss, therefore, in the first place, to discuss the means of obtaining this knowledge; and, in the second, the method of applying it when obtained. This might not unfitly be called the logic of zoology, or the art of collecting and assorting that peculiar class of ideas and notions which per tain to natural history. When we contemplate any living creature of the higher orders, with the view of becoming better acquainted with its form and structure, we find that certain portions of it may be divided into homogeneous parts, as muscle into muscles and nerves into nerves, whilst others divide themselves into heterogeneous parts, as the hand into fingers and the feet into tocs. The former, or homogeneous sections, belong to the study of anatomy, its office being to consider the texture as well as the form of the solid parts of the animal frame. The latter, or heterogeneous sections, being the development or unfolding of those parts into ex ternal configurations, enter more immediately into

the composition of that sum of particulars which is called zoology. Hence it appears that it is the primary division of our duty in the prosecution of this branch of science to consider the form and shape of a corresponding portion of one animal with reference to that of another, and to describe their differences in such clear and specific terms as to leave no doubt in the mind of the reader about the justness of his apprehension. But this is easier in theory than in the execution; for, though the difference in point of lineament between the head of a horse and that of a bear be manifest at first sight, yet, from the number and complexity of those lines which define their respective forms, it is no easy matter to suggest the principal mark for discrimination, if shape alone be the object of our enquiry. The essential properties of a straight line and a curved one are presently acknowledged by the eye; yet, since there may be curvatures of an infinite number of diameters, language is not adequate to express them; and, though we gladly content ourselves with approximations to accuracy, yet, since the configurations of animals are chiefly composed of these bending lines, we seldom attempt to seek for a leading characteristic from that quarter. To obviate this uncertainty, we may take a more confined view, and, by a sort of analogy, compare the relative breadths and lengths of corresponding portions, and the similar distances of prominent organs, as, for example, the size of ears contrasted with that of the head; the distance of the nostrils from the canthus of the eye, or from the meatus auditorius of the ear: thus several ways of measuring the head might be devised, which would very much assist the imagination and help comparative terms to a definitiveness in which they would be otherwise deficient. When any organ happens to admit of an uncommon degree of development, its very excess becomes a notable mark for distinction, as, for instance, the tragus of the ear among the bats, which, by expansion, assumes the form of a secondary ear, and is by the French called oreillon, or a little ear; and we, following the analogy of eyelet, have for the sake of brevity translated it ear-let: the prolonged snout of the nasua, or coati mondi; the voluntary power of protruding the muzzle in the ursine sloth; or the disproportioned length of the hind legs in the kangaroo. When a part appears under the form of a supplement, it never fails to arrest the attention of the most cursory observer, and when other marks are wanting, and its use in the animal economy cannot be discerned, we may fairly consider it as a signature which nature herself has set upon the creature to assist us in distinguishing it from the rest of its kindred. By way of reference we might allude to the nasal appendage so conspicuous in some of the bats, which has not only become the diagnostic of genus, but by the playful variety of its shape and foldings has split the group into several genera. But, without dwelling upon particularities of less importance, we might for the sake of exemplification refer to the membraneous expansion of integuments of the fore legs, and the elongation of the phalangial bones in the last mentioned animals, which, ministered to by large pectoral muscles, can, by the reaction of an elastic medium, support them in a lofty flight. In the proximate family of the galeopitheci, or flying cats, the attenuated and spreading skin of the sides or flanks, without any

lengthening of the phalangial bones, assists the possessors in leaping, and us in dividing them from their affinities. The legs and feet in some animals afford us very important means of distinction; that point which renders more prominent the angular bending in the hind leg of the horse and the lion is elevated to a mediate distance from the ground, and, by affording a mechanical advantage for the insertion of the muscles, aids the animal in bounding; but in the bear we find the same joint resting upon the plane of position, and the creature thereby enabled to maintain an erect attitude, in which case the animal is said to be plantigrade, implying that, instead of having the heel-bone so situated that the leg may act about it like a spring unbending about a pivot, it has the same bone brought so low as to rest upon the ground, and recompences the diminution of fleetness with which the tyger springs upon his prey, and the hind flees from danger, by allowing him a certain adaptation of posture that enables him to climb trees and gather his favorite food from their branches. In order to make room for the length of the metatarsal bones in the leg of a horse, we find the thigh bone, or os femoris, shorter, and in a manner included within the body. Instead of spreading itself into toes we sometimes find the foot, by the preponderating growth of horny substance, converted into a hoof, in which case later naturalists have found it convenient to call the animal solidungulous, importing that the nails have coalesced into one solid substance. Here the reader will be beforehand with me in suggesting the horse as an example and type for the rest. In a numerous order of animals we meet with a cleft in this hoof, and the two parts thus reft asunder so far separated as to assist the animal in ascending by clasping the inequalities of the soil. This attribute is collateral with another, namely, that of chewing the cud, which circumstance in nomenclature has, because it depends upon a noted number and structure of the stomachs, been allowed to take the lead of the former. It is familiar with most readers of the Bible that these were the signs by which a clean beast might be known from an unclean one; and, to lay the greatest possible emphasis upon the completeness of this division, the original has employed five verbs and concrete verbal nouns to express it. This order, as comprising all those useful animals which yield us both food and clothing, was made by Linné to pass under the extended appellation which we have some reason to believe was once appropriated to sheep alone. But Cuvier, willing to have a name which should by itself be significant of the character, has made choice of the classical and well understood term ruminantia, or ruminating animals, including all those tame beasts the chosen pabulum of which contains so small a proportion of nutriment fit for assimilation, that, were they obliged to perform the office of cropping and chewing at the same time, too much space would be subducted from the length allotted to repose. Among the quadrumana, or simiæ, of our arrangement, we, in the parts under consideration, recognise the similitude of our own hands; in the first and second families, especially, we observe a similar flatness in the nails and the tapering length of the fingers, but what is of far greater dignity is the meeting appliability of the thumb, which serves not only in grasping objects, which many other animals are accustomed to do with great facility

but enables the fingers to perform all that complexity of offices and manœuvres which we very expressively call handling. In the beaver the integuments of the toes are attenuated into webs, in order that they may fulfil the same purpose which the palm of an oar does in rowing, namely, that of propulsion by the reaction of the strucken medium. In that paradoxical animal, lately brought from New Holland, we meet with the same sort of webs extended beyond the tips of the nails in the fore-feet, but somewhat within their range in the hind ones.

The aphorism of Tully, that every system of instruction or doctrinal discussion ought to set out with a definition, is as pertinent to the nature and use of the term genus, in marshalling zoological facts, as it was to that of the word officium in a discourse on the practical duties. This word genus, formed by a dialectical variation from yevoç, is derived from the obsolete verb yɛvw, which has expanded itself into numerous posterity, youa, yiyvopai, vivoμai, yevvaw, &c., and expresses the separation of the young from the matrix of its mother. In the works of Aristotle, the father of philosophic method, it is tacitly presumed by the application of yevoç that certain characteristics of form are indispensably connected with the reproduction of a living creature. But, if a reader does but cast his eye over the pages of books written since the time of Linné, he will presently perceive that, even in works in which there is a great ostentation of accuracy, authors are by no means agreed about what constitutes a generic character; hence a table of synonyms, especially in ornithology, sometimes presents a series of monstrous discordances, and some might thence be tempted to think that such apparent deformities could be spared from an arrangement; but experience will teach them that these synonyms are an abbreviated form of an indefinite description, hinting at certain similitudes, conceived by those who imposed the names in question, which will aid the practical enquirer in ascertaining the identity with the subject of description, and lend him an indirect assistance in extricating the essential difference. To this observation we have been led by experience, having in our researches often had our doubts more effectually cancelled by the inspection of a few synonyms than by reading over a description of the ordinary length. Notwithstanding the diversity of judgments about the origin of generic distinction, we, from a certain concurrence of opinion exhibited by several late writers, and from the predominant mode of thinking observable in monographs of recently established genera, may be allowed to frame the following logical definition of a genus :—

The idea of a genus consists in a certain peculiar and prominent variation of form, provided a notion of that variation can be conveyed to the mind of another in clear and definitive terms, so that if the object and the description be submitted to a person of competent skill in the application of technical words, he shall not fail to acknowledge their reciprocal aptitude with a ready and unwavering confdence. This view of generic distinction is consonant with that philosophy which, being imbued with the idea of final causes, expects that every well-marked variety of conformation answers some determinate purpose in the economy of the animal. Species will have, therefore, little more to account for than the color of the hair or the grain of a fea

ther, which will, where the differences of kindred forms are numerous, afford a mighty relief to the elaboration of specific description.

Whenever the changes of form lose themselves by easy gradations in one another, as in the human species, this idea of genus is annihilated. The same observation is true with respect to our notion of species which is conversant about colors, when we apply it to the varieties of the human race and some domesticated animals. If we select indeed two extreme cases for the subjects of our comparison, we shall perceive an obvious difference, which. may be embodied in the most explicit terms; but, if we attempt to draw a line of demarcation, we shall find that every addition we make to our knowledge will tend to alter the position of this limit, till, by repeated shifting, the authentic nature of generic and specific differences be completely subverted. Though every one, for these reasons, has a right to canvass with the greatest freedom all pre-established boundaries in the common field of natural knowledge, yet even the most imperfect of such boundaries afford certain comfortable resting-places for the mind, and furnish excellent touchstones for trying the purity and precision of our conceptions; they are therefore allowed by a kind of courtesy to retain their rank till others of better title can be substituted in their room. There is something harsh and uncharitable in saying that, in consideration of numerous faults, I reject the system' of any one who has employed himself sedulously in the business of distribution, when the author of the performance himself, from a practical feeling of its deficiencies, only hoped that it would prepare the way, and furnish materials towards a more ample and a more orderly disposition. The following is the general plan of the present treatise :—

Part I. ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA, or the Vertebral Animals, divided into Class I. MAMMALIA. IL AVES. III. REPTILIA. IV. PISCES.

Part II. ANIMALIA INVERTEBRATA, or the Animals without Vertebræ, divided into Class I. CEPHALA PODA. II. PETROPODA. III. ACEPHALA. IV. BRACHIOPODA. V. CIRRHOPODA.

Part III. ANIMALIA ARTICULATA, or Animals composed of jointed rings. Class I. ANNELIDA. II. CRUSTACEA. III. ARACHNIDA. IV. INSFCTA. Part IV. ZOOPHYTA, Zoophytes. Class I. ECHINODERMATA. II. ENTOZOA or INTESTINALIA. III. ACALEPHA. IV. POLYPI.

With their respective Orders, Families, Genera, and Species.

PART I.

ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA.

CLASS L-MAMMALIA.

ORDER I.-BIMANUS.

Gen. Homo.-Vultibus erectis particeps rationis. Man. It is our design in the present article to contemplate man only under the aspect of a living creature, and to refer the reader to the article MrTAPHYSICS for the study of his intellectual character; for we protest against the practice of some writers who attempt to despatch the consideration of perception, judgment, memory, and the other leading faculties of the mind, in the compass of a few paragraphs, as if in point of physiology the relation of thought to the brain were discoverable in the same way in which we become acquainted