morality among society at large,-it would fit the inferior ranks of the community for taking a part in the elective franchise and government of their country, and the higher ranks for promoting the enactment of laws congenial to the spirit of true religion, and promotive of the best interests of the nation,-it would tend to secure the peace and tranquillity of nations by undermining the malignant passions from which wars and contentions derive their origin,-it would introduce a general spirit of philanthropy, and give efficacy to the means employed for promoting the knowledge of Christianity throughout the world, and would, ere long, usher in the period foretold in ancient prophecy, when "the knowledge of Jehovah shall cover the earth, as the waters cover the channels of the deep," and "when righteousness and praise shall spring forth before all nations." APPENDIX. No. I.-Ignorance of the Dark Ages. Page12. THE following facts, chiefly extracted from Dr. Robertson's history of Charles V., will show the low state of literature, and the deplorable ignorance which characterized the period to which the text refers. In the ninth century, Herbaud Comes Palatii, though supreme judge of the empire, by virtue of his office, could not subscribe his name. As late as the fourteenth century, Du Guesclin, constable of France, the greatest mman in the state, could neither read nor write. Nor was this ignorance confined to laymen,-the greater part even of the clergy were not many degrees superior to them in science. Many dignified ecclesiastics could not subscribe the canons of those councils of which they sat as members. One of the questions appointed by the canons to be put to persons who were candidates for holy orders was this-" Whether they could read the Gospels and Epistles, and explain the tenor of them, at least literally?"-Alfred the Great complained, that from the Humber to the Thames, there was not a priest who understood the liturgy in his mother tongue, or who could translate the easiest piece of Latin; and that from the Thames to the sea, the ecclesiastics were still more ignorant. The ignorance of the clergy is quaintly described by Alanus, an author of the dark ages, in the following words:- Potins dediti gulæ quam glossæ; potius colligunt libras quam legunt libros; libentius intuentur Marham quam Marcum ; malunt legere in Salmone quam in Solomone," i. e. They gave themselves more willingly to the pleasures of gluttony than to the learning of languages; they chose rather to collect money than to read books; they looked upon Martha with a more affectionate eye than upon Mark, and they found more delight in reading in Salmon than in Solomon. One of the causes of the universal ignorance which prevailed during that period, was the scarcity of books, along with their exorbitant price, and the difficulty of rendering them more commion. The Romans wrote their books either on parchment, or on paper made of the Egyptian papyrus. The latter being the cheapest, was, of course, the most commonly used. But after the communication between Europe and Egypt was broken off, on account of the latter having been seized upon by the Saracens, the papyrus was no longer in use in Italy and other European countries. They were obliged, on that account, to write all their books upon parchment, and as its price was high, books became extremely rare, and of great value. We may judge of the scarcity of the materials for writing them from one circumstance. There still remain several manuscripts of the eighth, ninth, and following centuries, written on parchment, from which some former writing had been erased, in order to substitute a new composition in its place. In this manner, it is probable, several works of the ancients perished. A book of Livy, or of Tacitus might be erased, to make room for the legendary tale of a saint, or the superstitious prayers of a missal. Many circumstances prove the scarcity of books during these ages. Private persons seldom possessed any books whatever. Even monasteries of considerable note had only one missal. Lupus, abbot of Ferriers, in a letter to the Pope, A. D. 855, beseech eshim to send him a copy of Cicero De Oratore, and Quintilian's "Institutions,"" for," says he, "although we have part of those books, there is no complete copy of them in all France." The price of books became so high, that persons of a moderate fortune could not afford to purchase them. The Countess of Anjou paid for a copy of the Homilies of Haimon, bishop of Alberstadt, two hundred sheep, five quarters of wheat, and the same quantity of rye and millet. Even so late as the year 1471, when Louis XI. borrowed the works of Racis, the Arabian physician, from the faculty of medicine in Paris, he not only deposited in pledge a considerable quantity of plate, but was obliged to procure a nobleman to join with him as surety in a deed, binding himself under a great forfeiture to restore it. When any person made a present of a book to a church or monastery, in which were the only libraries dur ing several ages, it was deemed a donative of such value, that he offered it on the altar pro remedio anima suæ, in order to obtain the forgiveness of his sins. In the eleventh century, the art of making paper, in the manner now become universal, was invented; by means of which, not only the number of manuscripts increased, but the study of the sciences was wonderfully facilitated. No. II.-Foolish and Superstitious Opinions respecting Comets and Eclipses. P. 18. Aristotle held comets to be fiery exhalations, rising from the lower atmosphere to the upper or fiery region, condensing during their rapid descent, kindling on their near approach to the Empyreum, and burning until exhausted. Leonard Digges, an Almanack maker of the four teenth century, affirmed of comets-"That they signifie corruption of the ayre; they are signes of earthquake, of warres, chaunging of kingdomes, great dearth of corne, yea a common death of man and beast."-Bodin supposed them spirits, which, having lived on the earth innumerable ages, and having at last completed their term of existence, celebrate their last triumphs, or are recalled to heaven in the form of shining stars. In the records of former ages, we read of a comet "coming out from an opening in the heavens, like to a dragon with blue feet, and a head covered with snakes." And we are told, that "in the year 1527, about four in the morning, not only in the Palatinate of the Rhine, but nearly over all Europe, appeared for an hour and a quarter, a most horrible comet in this sort. In its length it was of a bloody colour, inclining to saffron. From the top of its train appeared a bended arm, in the hand whereof was a huge sword, in the instant posture of striking. At the point of the sword was a star. From the star proceeded dusky rays, like a hairy tail; on the side of them other rays like javelins, or lesser swords, as if imbrued in blood; between which appeared human faces of the colour of blackish clouds, with rough hair and beards. All these moved with such terrible sparkling and brightness, that many spectators swooned with fear."-Rosenburgi " Exampla Cometarum." 66 The comet of 1454, seen at Constantinople, seemed there to be moving in the firmament, from west to east, and to present the aspect of a flaming sword. From its great magnitude, it is said even to have eclipsed the moon, and created among the Turks the utmost consternation, as it was thought to prognosticate nothing less than a crusade from all the kingdoms of Christendom, and forbode the certain overthrow of the crescent. Only two years afterwards, when, notwithstanding these direful omens, the Turkish arms had proved eminently victorious, and were spreading dismay over all Europe, Halley's co met, in 1456, with a long tail turned towards the east, created reciprocal and still greater alarms on the part of the Christians. Pope Calixtus believed it to be at once the sign and instrument of divine wrath; he ordered public prayers to be offered up, and decreed, that, in every town, the bells should be tolled at mid-day, to warn the people to supplicate the mercy and forgiveness of heaven: "ut omnes de precibus contra Turcarum tyrrannidem fundendis admonerentur." That all people may be admonished to pour out supplications against the tyranny of the Turks.See Milne's Essay on Comets. Even in modern times, many foolish and preposterous opinions have been entertained respecting these anomalous bodies. In a late periodi cal publication, the writer of an article on comets, when alluding to the comet of 1811, proceeds to state "some singular changes and circumstances," which its influence occasioned. "The winter," says he, "was very mild, the spring was wet, the summer cool, and very little appearance of the sun to ripen the produce of the earth; yet the harvest was not deficient, and some fruits were not only abundant, but deliciously ripe, such as figs, melons, and wall-fruit. Very few wasps appeared, and the flies became blind, and disappeared early in the season. No violent storms of thunder and lightning, and little or no frost and snow the ensuing winter. Venison, which has been supposed to be indebted for its flavour to a dry and parched summer, was by no means deficient in fat or in flavour. But what is very remarkable," continues this sage observer," in the metropolis, and about it, was the number of females who produced twins; some had more; and a shoemaker's wife, in Whitechapel, produced four at one birth, all of whom," &c. &c. And all such "singular changes and circumstances," it would appear, according to the fancy of this sapient Essayist, "were occasioned by the influence of the comet which appeared in the autumn of 1811!!" The poets, likewise, by their bombastic descriptions, have tended to perpetuate supersti tious feelings. The following is Du Barta's description of one of these visiters. "Here, in the night, appears a flaming spire, To herdsmen rot, to ploughmen hapless seasons; The following extract from "Tully's Letters from Tripoli," contains a picturesque description of a solar eclipse, and the effects it produced on the inhabitants of Barbary. "I cannot here omit describing what an extraordinary impression an eclipse makes on the uninformed part of the inhabitants of this country vinced of by his great earnestness, considerably abated their fears. To the ambassador it was a serious case, as Lilla Amnani is in a very delicate state of health; but the account he gave her of the phenomenon entirely pacified her." The above description presents a melancholy picture of the gross ignorance even of the ladies of modern Barbary, and of the consequent shallowness of their understandings; since their fathers and husbands considered it useless to enter into a rational account of the phenomenon, and since they were pleased with such an absurd and extravagant explanation of it. And, since the higher ranks, in that country, are so grossly ignorant of the order of nature, and of the causes of so common phenomena, in what a state of mental darkness must the lower classes of society be placed! Nor is Barbary the only country in which such ignorance prevails. Among the middling and lower ranks, in many European countries, supposed to be in a moderate state of civilization, a similar degree of intellectual debasement will be found to exist. The Croatians, who inhabit a certain district of the Austrian empire, make the whole of their religion consist in the hearing of mass and the observance of Lent; and robbery or murder are considered as more venial crimes, than to eat, during Lent, with a spoon that has been dipped in broth. The Morlacchi, who occupy another district of the same empire, are described by geographers, as extremely superstitious in their religious opinions, and as firmly believing in ghosts and witches, in sorceries and enchantments, and in every species of supernatural agency, while they are ig norant of the causes of the most common phenomena of nature. Of this we had ocular proof during the great eclipse of the sun, on the 4th of this month, which was almost total, and occasioned, for some minutes, a gloomy darkness, resembling that of midnight. The beginning of the eclipse was seen at Tripoli, at half past seven in the morning; at half past eight, when it was at the height, the face of nature was changed from day to night. The screech-owl, not long retired to its rest, re-appeared, and disturbed the morning with its shrieks. Lizards and serpents were seen prowling about the terraces; and flights of evening birds, here called marabats, and held sacred by the Moors, flew about in great numbers, and increased the darkness. The noisy flitting of their wings roused the Moor, who had been stupified by fear; and, when one of these heavy birds (which often drop to the ground by coming in contact with each other) chanced to fall at his feet, the African would start aghast, look at it with horror, and set up a hideous howl. About eight o'clock, when the lustre of the morning was completely faded, the common Moors were seen assembling in clusters in the streets, gazing wildly at the sun, and conversing very earnestly. When the eclipse was at its height, they ran about distracted, in companies, firing volleys of muskets at the sun, to frighten away the monster or dragon, as they called it, by which they supposed it was being devoured. At that moment, the Moorish song of death and walliah-woo, or the howl they make for the dead, not only resounded from the mountains and valleys of Tripoli, but was undoubtedly re-echoed throughout the continent of Africa. The women brought into the streets all the brass pans, kettles, and Iron utensils, they could collect; and, striking on them with all their force, and screaming at the same time, occasioned a horrid noise, that was No. III.-Absurdities of Astrology. P. 19, &c. heard for miles. Many of these women, owing to their exertions and fears, fell into fits, or fainted. The distress and terror of the Moors did not in the least abate, till near nine o'clock, when the sun assured them, by his refulgent beams, that all his dangers were passed. "During the morning and the day, the atmosphere was uncommonly clear, even for a Barbary sky, which rendered the effects of this great eclipse more striking. We learned, from Hadgi Abderrahman, who paid us a visit when it was over, that the first ladies in the place had trembled at the event, and several were seriously ill. The ladies of his own family, he said, had suffered much less at the appearance of the eclipse, from the circumstance of his being at home with them; for, though he considered it would be useless to enter into a philosophical account of it to them, yet he assured them that the moon went occasionally to see the sun; and when they met, by their being so close together, the moon always interrupted more or less of his light. This account, he said, the truth of which they were con Mr. Varley's "Zodiacal Physiognomy," referred to in a note, p. 19, pretends to decide, that the various signs of the zodiac create a great diversity in the features and complexions of human beings; and have, in fact, such influence over the destinies of the human race, that the system may be fairly styled, "the phrenology of the skies." The following extracts exhibit a few specimens of the positions maintained by this profound and erudite writer. "It has been discovered," says Mr. Varley, "that each sign confers a specific style of countenance, feature, and complexion, by which appearances, alone, the sign which was rising at the east, at birth, can, often without any other help, be ascertained.""The fiery trigon, consisting of Aries, Leo, and Sagittarius, contains the spirited, generous, magnanimous, and princely natures. The earthy trigon, Taurus, Virgo, and Capricorn, contain the careful, sordid, and pernicious qualities; the aerial trigon, Gemini, Libra, and Aquarius, contain the humane, harmonious, and courteous principles; and the watery trigon, Cancer, Scorpio, and Pisces, the cold, prolific, cautious, and severe qualities." "Sagittarius, the house of Jupiter, is the only sign under which no persons are born having black or dark hair, eyes, and eye-brows." "I have always uniformly found," says the author, "those born under Sagittarius, to be very fair, with gray eyes, and, in general, of a lively, forgiving-hearted, and free dispositions." Again, "Five minutes' difference of the time of their birth, renders the members of the same family red-haired, or black-haired, blue-eyed or black-eyed, sordid or generous." "Saturn, at any period of life, passing through the ascendant, which he does every thirty years, causes dulness or melancholy, for a few weeks, to the native, and when Jupiter passes over it, the party feels cheerful and healthy; and should a party of antiquarians, hundreds of years after a person's death, discover his grave, there must be some planet or the sun in conjunction, or some other aspect with his ascendant."-"Jupiter in the third house gives safe inland journeys, and agreeable neighbours or kindred. The moon in this house will give constant trudging from one place to another, and is often so posited in the nativities of postmen and travellers. Jupiter in the fourth, with Venus, gives fixed or landed property, and a house ornamented with matters of taste, or of the fine arts. Jupiter in the fifth, gives a family of good or clever children,and much pleasure in life and its amusements. In the sixth, he signifies good servants and assistants, good health, and that the native will be fortunate in small cattle and animals. Jupiter in the seventh, signifies a good wife or husband, and agreeable dealings with mankind in making good bargains," &c. "Children born under Mars have well formed chins,-under Aquarius, are fair and amiable,―under Scorpio, are dark with aquiline noses, and greenish or gray eyes." "Lord Byron, who was born under Scorpio, received enough of the reflected Taurus principle to prevent his nose from being aquiline, and to give to his cha racter a degree of perverseness or eccentricity." "Persons born under Aries, with Jupiter in the first house, are likely to succeed and be appreciated in England: If he be posited in Taurus, the native is likely to succeed well in Ireland; if in Gemini, in London, of which this sign is the sig nificator. Jupiter in Cancer will give him success in Scotland or Holland, or concerns connected with the water, unless Jupiter should be afflicted by any malevolent planet, or be in combustion by being too near the sun." By this time the reader will be sufficiently satiated with the sage doctrines of Mr. John Varley, in relation to "Zodiacal Physiognomy" and the Phrenology of the heavens. If he has a desire to pick up any more of such precious fragments of wisdom, he will be abundantly gratified in perusing the work itself, where, among other unique and precious relics, he will be pre sented with an engraving of the Ghost of a Flea, together with an account of the manner in which it appeared to Mr. Blake the artist, who drew it, and of its astrological correspondency and signification. That such absurdities should be published by the first bookselling establishment in London, in the twenty-eighth year of the nineteenth century, and be purchased by hundreds, perhaps by thousands, is a proof, that strong efforts are still requisite to extirpate the superstitions of astrology from the minds of many of our countrymen. No. IV.—Proofs of the belief which is still attached to the doctrines of Astrology, and of the pernicious effects it produces. P. 19, That the predictions of astrologers are still believed by many of our countrymen in the middling ranks of life, appears from the following recent occurrences. On the 2d September, 1829, Joseph Hyatt, a journeyman printer, was summoned before Sir Peter Laurie, at the Guildhall, London, charged with assaulting his wife, Philips, on the preceding Saturday. In his defence, Hyatt declared, that all their unhappiness proceeded from his wife (a pretty young woman of eighteen years,) continually haunting the fortune-tellers, and paying attention to their predictions. He produced a paper he had recently found, written by an astrologer, to whom his wife had applied. After laying down the position of the planets on the third of June, at the moment she applied to him, the astrologer proceeds, "The querant must not expect any thing to be very kind to her untillate in this year, say October next. This day will not prove any thing kind or pleasant. The 28th day of this month also will not be friendly. July 2d, mind your phunny, and take no journey, and trust to no relative. The eighth day will not be unkind I hope. Look to it. The thirteenth day also promises you pleasure and also profit. Attend it; and avoid all dark sallow persons. (Her husband nearly answered this description.) From such your disappointments must come, August 2, 6, 23, avoid them days—may be qualified to give you vexation,-avoid them. Sept. 1, 6, will be unkind, but pray avoid 15, 20. October 4, avoid it, may be vexatious. The 20, 21, 27, 28, 29, 30, will be more kind, pray attend to them and make good use of them, they will not be unkind." The husband said, this fellow had predicted their separation for three months; what other things he had put in her head he did not know, but he led a miserable life with her. Morning Chronicle, Sept. 3d, 1829. On the same day as above stated, (Sept. 2 1829) Ann Wheeler, a servant girl, was brought to the Mansion-house, charged with having at tempted to enter the house of her master, at two c'clock in the morning, over the rails. She was exquisitely dressed, and wore an elegant satin Donnet, which belonged to her mistress, and put on her curls and finery, in order to attend a "hop" in the neighbourhood, and acknowledged that she had been walking for an hour or two up and down the streets in conversation with her friend. In the course of the investigation it was stated, that there was found in the corner of her box, wrapped up carefully, a document which might have led to those unseasonable and unfortunate assignations, which at last terminated in her being brought to the watch-house. A paper was handed to the Lord Mayor, in which was folded a card, on which was written the following words, "Mrs. Smith, No. 49, Wentworth Street, Dress Maker." herself through the air, on a broomstick, or a spit, to distant places to attend the meetings of the witches. At these meetings the devil always presided. They were enabled also to transform themselves into various shapes, particularly to assume the forms of cats and hares, in which they most delighted; to inflict diseases on whomsoever they thought proper, and to punish their enemies in a variety of ways. Witchcraft was universally believed in Europe, till the sixteenth century, and maintained its ground with tolerable firmness till the middle of the seventeenth, nay, in some countries on the continent, till the middle of the eighteenth century. Vast numbers of reputed witches were convicted and condemned to be burnt every year. The methods of discovering them were various. One was to weigh the supposed criminal against the church Bible, which, if she was guilty, would preponderate; another, by making her attempt to say the Lord's Prayer, this no witch was able to repeat entirely, but would omit some part, or sentence thereof. It is remarkable, that all witches did not hesitate at the same part,—some leaving out one part, and some another. Teats, through which the imps sucked, were indubitable marks of a witch; these were always raw, and also insensible, and, if squeezed, sometimes yielded a drop of blood. A witch could not weep more than three tears, and that only out of the left eye. This want of tears was, by the witch-finders, and, even by some judges, considered as a very substantial proof of guilt. Swimming a witch was another kind of popular ordeal generally practised. For this she was stripped naked, and cross-bound,—the right thumb to the left toe, and the left thumb to the right toe. Thus prepared, she was thrown into a pond or river, in which, if guilty, she could not sink; for having, by her compact with the devil, renounced the benefit of the water of baptism, that element, in its turn, renounced her, and refused to receive her into its bosom. There were two other ordeals by fire, by which witches were. discovered; the first by burning the thatch of the No. V.—Illustrations of some of the opinions and house of the suspected witch,-the other, by practices of our ancestors in relation to witch-her, as a hog or an ox. These, it was held, would burning any animal supposed to be bewitched by craft. P. 22. "Lawful questions resolved." The paper was an answer to the question, "What sort of a husband shall I have, and how soon shall I have him?" It stated, that the "interrogator should have a nice respectable tradesman, who should be a most tender husband, and be the father of six children, of which she should be the happy mother-that certain planets were visible at their birth, and, in conjunction at the time, a symptom that betokened felicity, and that the union should take place as surely as he or she (the person who wrote the paper) had power of predicting."-Morning Chronicle, Sept. 3d, 1829. the The above are only specimens of many similar occurrences which are occasionally recorded in the daily papers. The pernicious tendency of astrological predictions on those who are weak enough to give them credit, is sufficiently apparent in the cases now stated; having in the one case alienated the affections of a young woman from her husband, and produced contention and family discord; and in the other, tantalized a vain young female, and brought her into suspicious and disgraceful circumstances, which may lay the foundation of her ruin, and render her miserable for life. force a witch to confess. By witchcraft was generally understood,-a The trial by the stool was another method used supernatural power, of which persons were sup- for the detection of witches. It was thus maposed to obtain the possession, by entering into naged :-Having taken the suspected witch, she a compact with the devil. They gave them- was placed in the middle of a room, upon a selves up to him, body and soul: and he engag-stool, or table, cross-legged, or in some other uned that they should want for nothing, and that he would avenge them upon all their enemies. As soon as the bargain was concluded, the devil delivered to the witch an imp, familiar spirit, to be ready at a call, and to do whatever it was directed. By the assistance of this imp, and of the devil together, the witch, who was almost always an old woman, was enabled to transport easy posture; to which, if she did not submit, she was then bound with cords,-there she was watched, and kept without meat or sleep for twenty-four hours, (for, they said, that within that time they should see her imp come and suck.) A little hole was likewise made in the door for imps to come in at, and, lest it should come in some less discernible shape, they that |