2. All physiologists agree that species cannot breed with | human form. Each division of mankind would thus have had species. Darwin himself laid it down as a fundamental principle. its pleistocene ancestors, and would have become differentiated If then the palaeolithic and neolithic types represented separate into races by the influence of climatic and other surroundings. species, they would be found to remain distinct through all time. As to the man's cradle-land there have been many theories, but the This is not the case. There is evidence that extreme dolicho- weight of evidence is in favour of Indo-Malaysia. cephaly continued into neolithic times, and was only slowly modified into brachycephaly. In the neolithic caves of Italy, Austria, Belgium, and the barrows of Great Britain, skulls of all types are found. The later cave-dwellers and early dolmen builders of Europe were at first long-headed, then of medium type, and finally in some places exclusively round-headed. In England the round-heads appear to be synchronous with the metal age, as shown by the contents of the barrows, and, as on the continental mainland, the two types gradually blended. Permanent fertility between them in prehistoric Europe is thus proved. And this is the case throughout the habitable globe. An examination of the osseous remains of American man supports the view that the human species has not varied since quaternary times. The palaeolithic type is to be found among modern European populations. Certain skulls from South Australia seem cast in almost the same mould as the Neanderthal. After thousands of years nearly pure descendants of quaternary man are found among living races. And man's mutual fertility in prehistoric is repeated throughout historic times: strict racial purity is almost unknown. Thus the unity of the species man is proved by the test of fertility.

3. The works of early man everywhere present the most startling resemblance. The palaeolithic implements all over the globe are all of one pattern. "The implements in distant lands," writes Sir J. Evans," are so identical in form and character with the British specimens that they might have been manufactured by the same hands. . . . On the banks of the Nile, many hundreds of feet above its present level, implements of the European types have been discovered; while in Somaliland, in an ancient rivervalley at a great elevation above the sea, Sir H.W. Seton-Karr hac collected a large number of implements formed of flint and quartzite, which, judging from their form and character, might have been dug out of the drift-deposits of the Somme and the Seine, the Thames or the ancient Solent." This identity in the earliest arts is repeated in the later stages of man's culture; his arts and crafts, his manners and customs, exhibit a similarity so close as to compel the presumption that all the races are but divisions of one family. But perhaps the greatest psychical proof of man's specific unity is his common possession of language. Theodore Waitz writes: "Inasmuch as the possession of a language of regular grammatical structure forms a fixed barrier between man and brute, it establishes at the same time a near relationship between all people in psychical respects. . . . In the presence of this common feature of the human mind, all other differences lose their import" (Anthropology, p. 273). As Dr J. C. Prichard urged, "the same inward and mental nature is to be recognized in all races of men. When we compare this fact with the observations, fully established, as to the specific instincts and separate psychical endowments of all the distinct tribes of sentient beings in the Universe we are entitled to draw confidently the conclusion that all human races are of one species and one family.". It has been argued that stock languages imply stock races, but this assumption is untenable. There are some fifty irreducible stock languages in the United States and Canada, yet, taking into consideration the physical and moral homogeneity of the American Indian races, he would be a reckless theorist who held that there were therefore fifty separate human species. If it were so, how have they descended? There are no anthropoid apes in America, none of the ape family higher than the Cebidae, from which it is impossible to trace men. Again, in Australia there is certainly one stock language, yet there are not even Cebidae. In Caucasia, there are many distinct forms of speech, yet all the peoples belong to the Caucasic division of mankind.

Man, then, may be regarded as specifically one, and thus he must have had an original cradle-land, whence the peopling of the earth was brought about by migration. The evidence tends to prove that the world was peopled by a generalized proto

Of all animals man's range alone coincides with that of the habitable globe, and the real difficulty of the "cradle-land" theory lay in explaining how the human race spread to every land. This problem has been met by geology, which proves that the earth's surface has undergone great changes since man's appearance, and that continents, long since submerged, once existed, making a complete land communication from IndoMalaysia. The evidence for the Indo-African continent has been summed up by R. D. Oldham,1 and proofs no less cogent are available of the former existence of an Eurafrican continent, while the extension of Australia in the direction of New Guinea is more than probable. Thus the ancestor of man was free to move in all directions over the eastern hemisphere. The western hemisphere was more than probably connected with Europe and Asia, in Tertiary times, by a continent, the existence of which is evidenced by a submarine bank stretching from Scotland through the Faeroes and Iceland to Greenland, and on the other side by continuous land at what is now the Behring Straits.

Acclimatization has been urged as an argument against the cradle-land theory, but the peopling of the globe took place in inter-Glacial if not pre-Glacial ages, when the climate was much milder everywhere, and thus pleistocene man met no climatic difficulties in his migrations.

Probably before the close of Palaeolithic times all the primary divisions of man were specialized in their several habitats by the influence of their surroundings. The profound effect of climate is seen in the relative culture of races. Thus, tropical countries are inhabited by savage or semi-savage peoples, while the higher races are confined to temperate zones. The primary divisions of mankind, Ethiopic, Mongolic, Caucasic, were certainly differentiated in neolithic times, and these criteria had almost certainly occurred not consecutively in one area but simultaneously in several areas. A Negro was not metamorphosed into a Mongol, nor the latter into a White, but the several semi-simian precursors under varying environments developed into generalized Negro, generalized Mongol, generalized Caucasian. Taking, then, these three primary divisions as those into

of Indian Geography," he says: "The plants of Indian and African 1 Writing in the Geographical Journal, March 1894, on "Evolution coal measures are without exception identical, and among the few animals which have been found in India one is indistinguishable from an African species, another is closely allied, and both faunas are characterized by the very remarkable genus group of reptiles Geology of India, 2nd ed. p. 203). These, however, are not the only comprising the Dicynodon and other allied forms (see Manual of analogies, for near the coast of South Africa there are developed a series of beds containing the plant fossils in the lower part and marine shells in the upper, known as the Uitenhage series, which along the east coast of India. The few plant forms found in the corresponds exactly to the small patches of the Rajmahál series lower beds of Africa are mostly identical with or closely allied to the Rajmahal species, while of the very few marine shells in the Indian outcrops, which are sufficiently well preserved for identification, at least one species is identical with an African form. These very close relationships between the plants and animals of India and Africa at this remote period appear inexplicable unless there were direct land communications between them over what is now the Indian Ocean. On the east coast of India in the Khasi Hills, and early cretaceous age are largely identical with, or very closely allied on the coast of South Africa, the marine fossils of late jurassic and to each other, showing that they must have been inhabitants of one and the same great sea. In western India the fossils of the same age belong to a fauna which is found in the north of Madagascar, in northern and eastern Africa, in western Asia, and ranges into Europe that only a few specimens of world-wide range are found in both. -a fauna differing so radically from that of the eastern exposures Seeing that the distances between the separate outcrops containing representatives of the two faunas are much less than those separating the outcrops from the nearest ones of the same fauna, the only possible explanation of the facts is that there was a continuous stretch of dry land connecting South Africa and India and separating two distinct marine zoological provinces."

which it is most reasonable broadly to divide mankind they | discussion of the branches of these three main divisions of Man may be analysed as to their racial constituents and their habitats as follows:

the reader must refer to articles under race headings, and to NEGRO; NEGRITOS; MONGOLS; MALAYS; INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN; AUSTRALIA; Africa; &c., &c.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-J. C. Prichard, Natural History of Man (London, 1843), Researches into the Physical History of Mankind (5 vols., 1836-1847); T. H. Huxley, Man's Place in Nature (London, 1863), and Geographical Distribution of Chief Modifications of Mankind," in Journ. Anthropological Institute for 1870; Theodore Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker (1859-1871); A. de Quatrefages, Histoire générale des races humaines (Paris, 1889); E. B. Tylor, Anthropology (1881); Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times (1865 Ratzel,' History of Mankind (Eng. trans., 1897); A. H. Keane, 6th ed., 1900) and Origin of Civilization (1870; 6th ed., 1902); F. Ethnology (2nd ed., 1897), and Man: Past and Present (2nd ed., 1899); G. de Mortillet, Le Préhistorique (Paris, 1882; 3rd ed., 1900); D. G. Brinton, Races and Peoples (1890); J. Deniker, The Races of Man (London, 1900); Hutchinson's Living Races of Man

1. Caucasic or White Man is best divided, following Huxley, into (a) Xanthochroi or "fair whites" and (b) Melanochroi or "dark whites." (a) The first-tall, with almost colourless skin, blue or grey eyes, hair from straw colour to chestnut, and skulls varying as to proportionate width--are the prevalent inhabitants of Northern Europe, and the type may be traced into North Africa and eastward as far as India. On the south and west it mixes with that of the Melanochroi and on the north and east with that of the Mongoloids. (b) The "dark whites" differ from the fair whites in the darkening of the complexion to brownish and olive, and of the eyes and hair to black, while the stature is somewhat lower and the frame lighter. To this division belong a large part of those classed as Celts, and of the popula-kind (1906). tions of Southern Europe, such as Spaniards, Greeks and Arabs, extending as far as India, while endless intermediate grades between the two white types testify to ages of intermingling, Besides these two main types, the Caucasic division of mankind has been held with much reason to include such aberrant types as the brown Polynesian races of the Eastern Pacific, Samoans, Hawaiians, Maoris, &c., the proto-Malay peoples of the Eastern archipelago, sometimes termed Indonesians, represented by the Dyaks of Borneo and the Battaks of Sumatra, the Todas of India and the Ainus of Japan. 2. Mongolic or Yellow Man prevails over the vast area lying

east of a line drawn from Lapland to Siam. His physical characteristics are a short squat body, a yellowish-brown or coppery complexion, hair lank, straight and black, flat small nose, broad skull, usually without prominent brow-ridges, and black oblique eyes. Of the typical Mongolic races the chief are the Chinese, Tibetans, Burmese, Siamese; the Finnic group of races occupy ing Northern Europe, such as Finns, Lapps, Samoyedes and Ostyaks, and the Arctic Asiatic group represented by the Chukchis and Kamchadales; the Tunguses, Gilyaks and Golds north of, and the Mongols proper west of, Manchuria; the pure Turkic peoples and the Japanese and Koreans. Less typical, but with the Mongolic elements so predominant as to warrant inclusion, are the Malay peoples of the Eastern archipelago. Lastly. though differentiated in many ways from the true Mongol, the American races from the Eskimo to the Fuegians must be

reckoned in the Yellow division of mankind.

3. Negroid or Black Man is primarily represented by the Negro of Africa between the Sahara and the Cape district, including Madagascar. The skin varies from dark brown to brown-black, with eyes of the same colour, and hair usually black and always crisp or woolly. The skull is narrow, with orbital ridges not prominent, the jaws protrude, the nose is flat and broad, and the lips thick and everted. Two important families are classed in this division; some authorities hold, as special modifications of the typical Negro to-day, others as actually nearer the true generalized Negroid type of neolithic times. First are the Bushman of South Africa, diminutive in stature and of a yellowish-brown colour: the neighbouring Hottentot is believed to be the result of crossing between the Bushman and the true Negro. Second are the large Negrito family, represented in Africa by the dwarf races of the equatorial forests, the Akkas, Batwas, Wochuas and others, and beyond Africa by the Andaman Islanders, the Aetas of the Philippines, and probably the Senangs and other aboriginal tribes of the Malay Peninsula. The Negroid type seems to have been the earliest predominant in the South Sea islands, but it is impossible to say certainly whether it is itself derived from the Negrito, or the latter is a modification of it, as has been suggested above. In Melanesia, the Papuans of New Guinea, of New Caledonia, and other islands, represent a more or less Negroid type, as did the now extinct Tasmanians.

Excluded from this survey of the grouping of Man are the aborigines of Australia, whose ethnical affinities are much disputed. Probably they are to be reckoned as Dravidians, a very remote blend of Caucasic and Negro man. For a detailed

C2H5. The compounds containing this radical are treated
ETHYL, in chemistry, the name given to the alkyl radical
under other headings; the hydride is better known as ethane,
the oxide (C2H5)2O is ordinary ether.
the alcohol, C2H5OH, is the ordinary alcohol of commerce, and

ETHYL CHLORIDE, or HYDROCHLORIC ETHER, C2H¿Cl, a chemical compound prepared by passing dry hydrochloric acid burning taste and an agreeable odour. It is extremely volatile, gas into absolute alcohol. It is a colourless liquid with a sweetish boiling at 12.5° C. (54.5° F.), and is therefore a gas at ordinary room temperatures; it is stored in glass tubes fitted with screwcapped nozzles. The vapour burns with a smoky green-edged flame. It is largely used in dentistry and slight surgical operatrade-name kelene. More volatile anaesthetics such as anestile tions to produce local anaesthesia (q.v.), and is known by the chloride; a mixture of ethyl and methyl chlorides with ethyl or anaesthyl and coryl are produced by mixing with methyl bromide is known as somnoform.

ETHYLENE, or ETHENE, C2H4, or H2C:CH2, the first representative of the series of olefine hydrocarbons, is found in coal gas. It is usually prepared by heating a mixture of ethyl alcohol and sulphuric acid. G. S. Newth (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1901, 79, P. 915) obtains a purer product by dropping ethyl alcohol into syrupy phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1-75) warmed to 200° C., subsequently raising the temperature to 220° C. It can also be obtained by the action of sodium on ethylidene chloride (B. Tollens, Ann., 1866, 137, p. 311); by the reduction of copper bromide with an alcoholic solution of caustic potash; by passing acetylide with zinc dust and ammonia; by heating ethyl red-hot copper; and by the electrolysis of a concentrated solution a mixture of carbon bisulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen over of potassium succinate,

(CH2 CO2K)2+2H2O=C2H1+2CO2+2KOH+H2. It is a colourless gas of somewhat sweetish taste; it is slightly soluble in water, but more so in alcohol and ether. It can be liquefied at-1.1° C., under a pressure of 42 atmos. It solidifies at-181° C. and melts at-169° C. (K. Olszewski); it boils at -105° C. (L. P. Cailletet), or-102° to-103° C. (K. Olszewski). Its critical temperature is 13° C., and its specific gravity is 0.9784 (air=1). The specific gravity of liquid ethylene is 0.386 (3° C.). Ethylene burns with a bright luminous flame, and forms a very explosive mixture with oxygen. For the combustion of ethylene see FLAME. On strong heating it decomposes, giving, among other products, carbon, methane and acetylene (M. Berthelot, Ann., 1866, 139, p. 277). Being an unsaturated hydrocarbon, it is capable of forming addition products, e.g. it combines with hydrogen in the presence of platinum black, to form ethane, C2H6, with sulphur trioxide to form carbyl sulphate, C2H4(SO3)2, with hydrobromic and hydriodic acids at 100° C. to form ethyl bromide, C2H,Br, and ethyl iodide, C2HI, with sulphuric acid at 160-170° C. to form ethyl sulphuric acid, C2H5 HSO4, and with hypochlorous acid to form glycol chlorhydrin, Cl-CH2-CH2.OH. Dilute potassium permanganate solution oxidizes it to ethylene glycol, HO-CH2 CH2OH, whilst fuming nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid. Several compounds of ethylene and metallic

chlorides are known; e.g. ferric chloride in the presence of ether at 150° C. gives C2H4 FeCl3.2H2O (J. Kachtler, Ber., 1869, 2, p. 510), while platinum bichloride in concentrated hydrochloric acid solution absorbs ethylene, forming the compound C2H4 PtCl2 (K. Birnbaum, Ann., 1868, 145, p. 69).

been very different in ancient times, for the so-called Torre del Filosofo, which is only 1188 ft. below the present summit, is a building of Roman date. The shape is that of a truncated cone, interrupted on the west by the Valle del Bove, a huge sterile abyss, 3 m. wide, bounded on three sides by perpendicular ÉTIENNE, CHARLES GUILLAUME (1778-1845), French cliffs (2000 to 4000 ft.). Its south-west portion, which is the dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was born near Saint Dizier, deepest, was perhaps the original crater. There are also some Haute Marne, on the 5th of January 1778. He held various 200 subsidiary cones, some of them over 3000 ft. high, which municipal offices under the Revolution and came in 1796 to have risen over lateral fissures. On the slopes of the mountain Paris, where he produced his first opera, Le Rêve, in 1799, in there are three distinct zones of vegetation, distinguished by collaboration with Antoine Frédéric Gresnick. Although Strabo (vi. p. 273 ff.). The lowest, up to about 3000 ft., is the Étienne continued to write for the Paris theatres for twenty zone of cultivation, where vegetables, and above them where years from that date, he is remembered chiefly as the author water is more scanty, vines and olives flourish. Owing to its of one comedy, which excited considerable controversy. Les extraordinary fertility it is dense y populated, having 930 Deux Gendres was represented at the Théâtre Français on the inhabitants per sq. m. below 2600 ft., and 3056 inhabitants 11th of August 1810, and procured for its author a seat in the per sq. m. in the triangle between Catania, Nicolosi and Acireale. Academy. A rumour was put in circulation that Étienne had The next zone is the wooded zone, and is hardly inhabited, only drawn largely on a manuscript play in the imperial library, a few isolated houses occurring. The lower part of it (up to entitled Conaxa, ou les gendres dupés. His rivals were not slow about 6000 ft.) consists chiefly of forests of evergreen pines to take up the charge of plagiarism, to which Étienne replied (Pinus nigricans), the upper (up to about 6800 ft.) of birchwoods that the story was an old one (it existed in an old French fabliau) | (Betula alba). A few oaks and red beeches occur, while chestnut and had already been treated by Alexis Piron in Les Fils ingrats. trees grow anywhere between 1000 and 5300 ft. In the third and He was, however, driven later to make admissions which at highest zone the vegetation is stunted, and there is a narrow zone least showed a certain lack of candour. The bitterness of the of sub-Alpine shrubs, but no Alpine flora. In the last 2000 ft. attacks made on him was no doubt in part due to his position five phanerogamous species only are to be found, the first three as editor-in-chief of the official Journal de l'Empire. His next of which are peculiar to the mountain: Senecio Etnensis (which play, L'Intrigante (1812), hardly maintained the high level of is found quite close to the crater), Anthemis Etnensis, Robertsia Les Deux Gendres; the patriotic opera L'Oriflamme and his lyric taraxacoides, Tanacetum vulgare and Astragalus siculus. No trace masterpiece Joconde date from 1814. Etienne had been secretary of animal life is to be found in this zone; for the greater part of to Hugues Bernard Maret, duc de Bassano, and in this capacity the year it is covered with snow, but by the end of summer this had accompanied Napoleon throughout his campaigns in Italy, has almost all melted, except for that preserved in the covered Germany, Austria and Poland. During these journeys he pro- pits in which it is stored for use for cooling liquids, &c., in Catania duced one of his best pieces, Brueys et Palaprat (1807). During and elsewhere. The ascent is best undertaken in summer or the Restoration Étienne was an active member of the opposition. autumn. From the village of Nicolosi, 9 m. to the N.W. of He was seven times returned as deputy for the department of Catania, about 7 or 8 hours are required to reach the summit. Meuse, and was in full sympathy with the revolution of 1830, Thucydides mentions eruptions in the 8th and 5th centuries B.C., but the reforms actually carried out did not fulfil his expectations, and others are mentioned by Livy in 125, 121 and 43 B.C. Catania and he gradually retired from public life. Among his other was overwhelmed in 1169, and many other serious eruptions are plays may be noted: Les Deux Mères, Le Pacha de Suresnes, and recorded, notably in 1669, 1830, 1852, 1865, 1879, 1886, 1892, La Petite Ecole des pères, all produced in 1802, in collaboration 1899 and March 1910. with his friend Gaugiran de Nanteuil (1778-1830). With Alphonse Dieudonné Martainville (1779-1830) he wrote an Histoire du Théâtre Français (4 vols., 1802) during the revolutionary period. Etienne was a bitter opponent of the romanticists, one of whom, Alfred de Vigny, was his successor and panegyrist in the Academy. He died on the 13th of March 1845.

His Euvres (6 vols., 1846-1853) contain a notice of the author by L. Thiessé.

ETIQUETTE, a term for ceremonial usage, the rules of behaviour observed in society, more particularly the formal rules of ceremony to be observed at court functions, &c., the procedure, especially with regard to precedence and promotions in an organized body or society. Professions, such as the law or medicine, observe a code of etiquette, which the members must observe as protecting the dignity of the profession and preventing injury to its members. The word is French. The O. Fr. estiquette or estiquet meant a label, or “ticket,” the true English derivative. The ultimate origin is Teutonic, from sticken, to post up, stick, affix. Cotgrave explains the word in French as a billet for the benefit or advantage of him that receives it, a form of introduction and also a notice affixed at the gate of a court of law. The development of meaning in French from a label to ceremonial rules is not difficult in itself, but, as the New English Dictionary points out, the history has not been clearly established.

ETNA (Gr. Airvn, from aïow, burn; Lat. Aetna), a volcano on the east coast of Sicily, the summit of which is 18 m. N. by W. of Catania. Its height was ascertained to be 10,758 ft. in 1900, | having decreased from 10,870 ft. in 1861. It covers about 460 sq. m., and by rail the distance round the base of the mountain is 86 m., though, as the railway in some places travels high, the correct measurement is about 91 m. The height cannot have

According to Lyell, Etna is rather older than Vesuviusperhaps of the same geological age as the Norwich Crag. At Trezza, on the eastern base of the mountain, basaltic rocks occur associated with fossiliferous Pliocene clays. The earliest eruptions of Etna are older than the Glacial period in Central and Northern Europe. If all the minor cones and monticules could be stripped from the mountain, the diminution of bulk would be extremely slight. Lyell concluded that, although no approximation can be given of the age of Etna, "its foundations were laid in the sea in the newer Pliocene period." From the slope of the strata from one central point in the Val del Bue he further concluded that there once existed a second great crater of permanent eruption. The rocks erupted by Etna have always been very constant in composition, viz. varieties of basaltic lava and tuff containing little or no olivine—the rock type known as labradorite. At Acireale the lava has assumed the prismatic or columnar form in a striking manner; at the rock of Aci it is in parts spheroidal. The Grotte des Chèvres has been regarded as an enormous gas-bubble in the lava. The remarkable stability of the mountain appears to be due to the innumerable dikes which penetrate the lava flows and tuff beds in all directions and thus bind the whole mass together.

From the earliest times the mountain has naturally been the subject of legends. The Greeks believed it to be either the mountain with which Zeus had crushed the giant Typhon (so Pindar, Pyth. i. 34 seq.; Aeschylus, Prometheus Vinctus, 351 seq.; Strabo xiii. p. 626), or Enceladus (Virgil, Georg. i. 471; Oppian, Cyn. i. 273), or the workshop of Hephaestus and the Cyclopes (Cic. De divin. ii. 19; cf. Lucil., Aetna, 41 seq., Solin, 11). Several Roman writers, on the other hand, attempted to explain the phenomena which it presented by natural causes (e.g. Lucretius vi. 639 seq.; Lucilius, Aetna, 511 seq.). Ascents

of the mountain were not infrequent in those days-one was made by Hadrian.

See Sartorius von Waltershausen, Atlas des Ätna (Leipzig, 1880); E. Chaix, Carta Volcanologica e topographica dell'Etna (showing lava streams up to 1892); G. de Lorenzo, L'Etna (Bergamo, 1907).

ETNA, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., in the western part of the state, on the W. bank of the Allegheny river (about 5 m. from its junction with the Monongahela), and about 2 m. N. of the city of Pittsburg, of which it is a suburb. Pop. (1880) 2334; (1890) 3767; (1900) 5384 (1702 foreign-born); (1910) 5830. It is served by the Pennsylvania railway and by electric lines. Among its industrial establishments are rolling mills, tube and pipe works, furnaces, steel mills, a brass foundry, and manufactories of electrical railway supplies, boxes, asbestos coverings, enamel work and ice. The city's industrial history dates from 1820, when a small factory for the manufacture of scythes and sickles was set up. Natural gas, piped from Butler county, was early used here as a fuel in the iron mills. Etna, formerly called Steuart's Town, was incorporated as a borough in 1869.

modern subjects; but until the first half of the 19th century the normal course of instruction remained almost wholly classical; and although there were masters for other subjects, they were unconnected with the general business of the school, and were attended at extra hours.

The school buildings were founded in 1441 and occupied in part by 1443, but the whole original structure was not completed till fifty years later. The older buildings consist of two quadrangles, built partly of freestone but chiefly of brick. The outer quadrangle, or school-yard, is enclosed by the chapel, upper and lower schools, the original scholars' dormitory (" long chamber "), now transformed, and masters' chambers. It has in its centre a bronze statue of the royal founder. The buildings enclosing the inner or lesser quadrangle contain the residence of the fellows, the library, hall and various offices. The chapel, on the south side of the school-yard, represents only the choir of the church which the founder originally intended to build; but as this was not completed Waynflete added an ante-chapel. The chapel was built upon a raised platform of stone, as was the hall, in order to lift it above the flood-level of the Thames. It contains some interesting monuments of provosts of the college and others, and at the west end of the ante-chapel is a fine marble statue of the founder in his royal robes, by John Bacon. A chantry contains the tomb of Roger Lupton (provost 1503-1535), whose most notable monument is the fine tower between the schoolyard and the cloisters to the east; though other parts of his building also remain. The space enclosed by two buttresses on the north side of the chapel, at the point where steps ascend to the north door, is the model of the peculiar form of court for the game of fives which takes name from Eton, with its "buttress tress" (represented by the projecting balustrade), the ledges round the walls, and the step dividing the floor into two levels. From the foundation of the college the chapel was used as the parish church until 1854, and not until 1875, after the alteration of the ancient constitution had secularized the foundation, was the parish of Eton created into a separate vicarage. The chapel does not accommodate the whole school; and a new chapel, from the designs of Sir Arthur Blomfield, is used by the lower school. The library contains many manuscripts (notably an Oriental and Egyptian collection) and rare books; and there is also a library for the use of the boys. The college in modern times has far outgrown its ancient buildings, and new buildings, besides the lower chapel, include the new schools, with an observatory, a chemical laboratory, science schools and boardinghouses. In 1908 King Edward VII. opened a fine range of build

ETON, a town of Buckinghamshire, England, on the north (left) bank of the river Thames, opposite Windsor, within which parliamentary borough it is situated. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3301. It is famous for its college, the largest of the ancient English public schools. The "King's College of Our Lady of Eton beside Windsor " was founded by Henry VI. in 1440-1441, and endowed mainly from the revenues of the alien priories suppressed by Henry V. The founder followed the model established by William of Wykeham in his foundations of Winchester and New College, Oxford. The original foundation at Eton consisted of a provost, 10 priests, 4 clerks, 6 choristers, a schoolmaster, 25 poor and indigent scholars, and the same number of poor men or bedesmen. In 1443, however, Henry considerably altered his original plans; the number of scholars was increased to 70, and the number of bedesmen reduced to 13. A connexion was then established, and has been maintained ever since, though in a modified form, between Eton and Henry's foundation of King's College, Cambridge. One of the king's chief advisers was William of Waynflete, who had been master of Winchester College, and was appointed provost of Eton in 1443. Among further alterations to the foundation in this year was the establishment of commensales or commoners, distinct from the scholars; and these under the name of " oppidans" now form the principal body of the boys. The college survived with difficulty the unsettled period at the close of Henry's reign; while Edward IV. curtailed its possessions, and was at first desirous of amalgamat-ings erected in honour of the Old Etonians who served in the ing it with the ecclesiastical foundation of St George, Windsor Castle. In 1506 the annual revenue amounted to £652; and through benefactions and the rise in the value of property the college has grown to be very richly endowed. In 1870 commissioners under an act of 1868 appointed the governing body of the college to consist of the provost of Eton, the provost of King's College, Cambridge, five representatives nominated respectively by the university of Oxford, the university of Cambridge, the Royal Society, the lord chief justice and the masters, and four representatives chosen by the rest of the governing body. By this body the foundation was in 1872 made to consist of a provost and ten fellows (not priests, but merely the members of the governing body other than the provost), a headmaster of the school, and a lower master, at least seventy scholars (known collegers"), and not more than two chaplains or conducts. Originally it was necessary that the scholars should be born in England, of lawfully married parents, and be between eight and sixteen years of age; but according to the statutes of 1872 the scholarships are open to all boys who are British subjects, and (with certain limitations as to the exact date of birth) between twelve and fifteen years of age. A number of foundation scholarships for King's College, Cambridge, are open for competition amongst the boys; and there are besides several other valuable scholarships and exhibitions, most of which are tenable only at Cambridge, some at Oxford, and some at either university. The teaching embraces the customary range of classical and

as

South African War, and in memory of those who fell there. The architect was Mr L. K. Ball, an old Etonian. The buildings include a school hall, a domed octagonal library, and a classical

museum.

The principal annual celebration is held on the 4th of June, the birthday of King George III., who had a great kindness for the school. This is the speech-day; and after the ceremonies in the school a procession of boats takes place on the Thames. In the sport of rowing Eton occupies a unique position among the public schools, and a large proportion of the oarsmen in the annual Oxford and Cambridge boat-race are alumni of the school. Another annual celebration is the occasion of the contest between collegers and oppidans at a peculiar form of football known as the wall game, from the fact that it is played against a wall bordering the college playing-field. This game takes place on St Andrew's Day, the 30th of November. The field game of football commonly played at Eton has also peculiar rules. The annual cricket match between Eton and Harrow schools, at Lord's ground, London, is always attended by a large and fashionable gathering. A singular custom termed the Montem, of unknown origin, but first mentioned in 1561, was observed here triennially on WhitTuesday. The last celebration took place in 1844, the ceremony being abolished just before it fell due in 1847. It consisted of a procession of the boys in a kind of military order, with flags and music, headed by their "captain," to a small mound called Salt Hill, near the Bath road, where they levied contributions,