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production of original compositions. Two of his earliest works, Titus Andronicus (1593) probably, and The First Part of Henry VI. (1592) certainly, represent this journeyman playwright work. Love's Labour's Lost (1591), the most juvenile of his early comedies, is the only play of Shakespeare's which borrows nothing in plot from any other author. His two immediately succeeding plays, The Comedy of Errors (1592) and The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1591), are respectively indebted to the Menæchmi of Plautus and the pastoral Diana of the Portuguese writer Montemayor. At the same time, the young writer established

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his reputation in more exacting fields by the production of Romeo and Juliet (1592), that 'lyrical tragedy of youth.' The immediate results of these achievements are perhaps to be seen in his collaboration with Marlowe in the revision of The Second and The Third Part of Henry VI. (1592). The two succeeding historical plays, Richard III. (1593) and Richard II. (1593), are written in close imitation of Marlowe's manner. In King John (1594), however, we Shakespeare emancipating himself from the Marlowian influence; and when, after an interval of some years, he resumes the historical play in the two parts of Henry IV. (1597), he carries into it the mature conception of comedy that he had already exemplified in The Merchant of Venice (1594), A Midsummer Night's Dream (1594), All's Well that Ends Well (1595), and The Taming of the Shrew (1595), and centres the interest in the Rabelaisian figure of Falstaff. The success of this portraiture led to its further development, by royal command, in The Merry Wives of Windsor (1597); and then, after singing in Henry V. (1598) the glories of England, the dramatist turned to a more poetical and less boisterous species of comedy, and produced in rapid succession Much Ado about Nothing (1599), As You Like It (1599), and Twelfth Night (1600).

Immediately succeeding these works begins the period of Shakespeare's great tragedies-a period whose sombre grandeur is broken by two comedies only, Measure for Measure (1604) and Troilus and Cressida (1603), plays which are but comedies in name, and which throughout are steeped in the tragic spirit. In Julius Cæsar (1601), the tragedy of Brutus, and in Hamlet (1602) we are brought face to face with the spectacle of men overweighted by the charge laid upon them; while Othello (1604), Macbeth (1606), King Lear (1607), Timon of Athens (1608), Antony and

Cleopatra (1608), and Coriolanus (1609) are all betrayed to their doom by some fatal defect of nature or weak temporizing with temptation. It is impossible, on surveying this grim series of tragedies, to doubt that the real motive that led the dramatist to the treatment of such subjects was no mere artistic impulse, but some real occurrence in his own history. But whatever that event may have been, it did not permanently embitter his nature. Already in Pericles (1608) we have a hint of his final attitude towards life; and in his latest productions -the comedies of Cymbeline (1610), A Winter's Tale (1611), and The Tempest (1611)—— we find ourselves in an atmosphere of peace and serenity. They are comedies of reconciliation and forgiveness, and the restoration of lost happiness. With them Shakespeare's direct connection with the stage ended. He seems, however, to have left behind him with his company some partially executed sketches of plays, and the finishing of these was apparently entrusted to Fletcher. To this joint labor we probably owe Henry VIII. (1613) and The Two Noble Kinsmen (1613). Another work, The History of Cardenio, attributed to the same authors, has disappeared. tain other plays have been conjecturally assigned to our author

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viz. Arden of Feversham (1592), Fair Em (1592), Mucedorus, and Edward III. (1595). None of these are ranked as genuine by any large proportion of competent judges; but the claims of Arden of Feversham have been supported by some critics of repute, including Mr. Swinburne.

Though admitted by the almost universal consensus of mankind to be the greatest of poets, Shakespeare's greatness does not depend upon any striking originality in the externals of his art. In all the outward manifestations of his genius he was the child of his own age. Not only was he content to borrow the framework, and sometimes far more than the framework, of his plays from others, but in the more intimate matter of style he made himself, to begin with, the pupil of his contemporaries. Marlowe, Peele, Kyd, and notably Lyly, all influenced him. Yet even in his most imitative writings the note personal to himself occurs, and differentiates his work from that of others. Even as a pupil he outdid his masters; and the manner of his maturer plays is not only entirely different from that of any other dramatist, but is so individual that it has never been successfully imitated. Shakespeare initiated nothing, but he brought all the abortive

beginnings of others to a triumphant conclusion. The mixture of comedy and tragedy in the drama, for example, was the common inheritance of his age. But before his triumphs the comic elements were, as they remained throughout in the sister drama of Spain, sops thrown to the groundlings to conciliate their impatience. In Shakespeare's hands, however, the comic becomes an integral feature of the moral atmosphere of the plays. How much would be lost to us if, for instance, the grave-digger in Hamlet or the fool in Lear were omitted! It is this moral atmosphere and its effects on character that absorb the main energy of the dramatist; for in the mere matter of plot construction, Shakespeare is not to be compared with others of the world's great playwrights. When the problem that he set out consider is solved, he seems to be comparatively careless as to how his personages are shuffled off the stage. It is character, and the development of character, that interest him; and it is by his prolific creation, not of stage copies, but of men and women, that he has established his position as the supreme poet and interpreter of human life.

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Bibliography.-Text.-The earliest critical edition of the plays is that of Nicholas Rowe (1709), who was followed by Pope (1725), Theobald (1733), Hammer (1744), Warburton (1747), Dr. Johnson (1765), Capell (1768), Steevens (1773-based on Johnson), and Malone (1790). The first complete American edition was published in 1795-96 at Philadelphia; one ed. by Peabody in 7 vols. appeared at Bos ton in 1836, and a 10 vol. ed. (Reed's text) was published at New York in 1821 and in 1824, and there have also been other editions issued in the U. S. from that date on. The First Variorum edition (Isaac Reed's-based on Steevens's materials) appeared in 1803. The so called Second Variorum (1813) was practically a reprint. The Third Variorum (1821) was prepared by James Boswell (son of the biographer), working on Malone's collection, and is known as Boswell's Malone. A new variorum was begun in 1871 by H. Howard Furness of Philadelphia. Later editions are those of Dyce (1857), Howard Staunton (1868 - 70), Nikolaus Delius (1854-61), the Cambridge edition (1891-93), Richard Grant White (1857-65), also his Riverside edition (1883), H. N. Hudson's Harvard ed. (20 vols. 188081), the Bankside edition (1888), the Henry Irving edition, prepared by F. A. Marshall (188890); the Temple edition of Israel

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Shakopee

Gollancz (1894-6); and the Eversley Shakespeare, edited by Professor Herford (1899). Of onevolumed unannotated editions, the Globe, by W. G. Clark and Aldis Wright (1864), the Leopold (1876), the Oxford (1894), and the Falstaff (1896) deserve mention.

Lexicons and Concordances.Schmidt's Shakespeare Lexicon (1874), Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance to the Plays (1845), Mrs. Furness's Concordance to the Poems (1875), and Bartlett's to plays and poems combined (1895); Dr. E. A. Abbott's Shakespearian Grammar (new ed. 1893), W. Sidney Walker's Shakespeare's Versification (1854), and Critical Examination of the Text (1860).

Sonnets. Principal editions are those of Dowden (1875), Tyler (1890), and George Wyndham (1898).

Commentaries and Criticisms. -Coleridge's Shakespeare Notes and Lectures (1849); Hazlitt's Characters of Shakespeare's Plays (1905); Ulrici's Shakespeare's Dramatic Art (trans. 1846); Kreyssig's Shakespeare Fragen (1871); Hudson's Shakespeare: His Life, Art, and Characters (1872); Dowden's Shakespeare, his Mind and Art (1875); Thomas Spencer Bayne's Shakespeare Studies (1894); Swinburne's Study of Shakespeare (1880); R. G. White's Studies in Shakespeare (1885); Moulton's Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist (1893); Douce's Illustrations of Shakespeare (1807); Dr. Georg Brandes's William Shakespeare (Eng. ed. 1898); Alfred Mézière's Shakespeare, ses Euvres (1865); Nichol Smith's Eighteenth Century Essays on Shakespeare (1903); and Stopford Brooke's Ten Plays of Shakespeare (1905).

Lives.-J. O. Halliwell-Phillipp's Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare (1881; 7th and complete ed. 1887), Life by Samuel Neil (1861), Introduction to Shakespeare (1893), Sidney Lee's Life (1898; new ed. 1905).

Shakopee, city, Minn., co. seat of Scott co., 28 in. w.s.w. of St. Paul, on the Minnesota R., and on the Chi. and N. W. and the Chi., Mil. and St. P. R. Rs. It has large flour mills, manufactures of lime, brick, stoves, cement blocks, cooperage materials, etc., and a meat-packing plant. It is the shipping point of a dairying and agricultural district. It has a state high school, a fine Catholic cathedral, and a court-house. It was settled in 1850 and incorporated in 1856. Pop. (1910) 2,302.

Shale, a sedimentary deposit of impure clay possessing a finely laminated structure. True shales break into slabs or flakes parallel the sedimentation planes. Very uniform and fine-grained shales may pass into slates by

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incipient recrystallization under great pressure such as accompanies mountain folding. Slates have then a cleavage independent of the original bedding. Some shales are full of fossil plants; others yield petroleum on distillation (oil-shales). The transition from shale to argillaceous sandstone, argillaceous limestone, clay ironstone, and coal is very gradual and complete. Shales disintegrate readily under the action of rain and frost and almost always form slopes instead of cliffs in erosion.

Shaler, NATHANIEL SOUTHGATE (1841-1906), American geologist, was born in Newport, Ky., and graduated at Harvard in 1862. During the Civil War he commanded a Ky. battery which bore his name. In 1864 he became professor of palæontology in Harvard, and in 1865-72 was head of the department of geology in the Lawrence Scientific School. In 1872 he became director of the Kentucky State Geological Survey, and in 1884 he joined the geological staff of the Altantic coast division of the U. S. Geological Survey. In 1891 he became dean of the Lawrence Scientific School, at Harvard. He was one of the best lecturers in Harvard, and his genial disposition made him very popular with the students. He was considered by members of the faculty one of the most learned and versatile men that had ever been associated with the university. His special subject of study was geology, but he had a wide knowledge of mathematics, chemistry, physics, and several departments of biology and zoology, and did valuable work in all those sciences. He also wrote five blank verse plays which were based on Elizabethan models, which contain many eloquent passages. He was author of Antiquity of Caverns and Cavern Life of the Ohio Valley (1876); Geological Survey of Kentucky Reports (6 vols. 1876-82); Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Kentucky (1876); Kentucky (1885); The Story of Our Continent (1892): Domesticated Animals (1895); Nature and Man in America (1895); Aspects of the Earth (1896); The Interpretation of Nature (1893); The Individual, a Study of Life and Death (1900); The Citizen (1903); and The Neighbor (1904).

Shallot, an Asiatic plant (Allium Ascalonicum) cultivated in gardens for its bulbs, which are used much as the onion, but have a far more delicate flavor. The bulbs differ in color and shape from those of the onions, being elongated and of a pale-gray color. The They are easily cultivated. bulbs should be planted just below the surface in deeply dug,

Shammai

rich, medium soil, about four inches being allowed from bulb to bulb. When the leaves begin to wither, the crop should be Dulled and sun-dried for a few days.

Shalmaneser. See ASSYRIA.
Shaloo. See DURRA.

Shama (Cittocincla macrurua), an Indian bird, a member of the warbler family, which has a beautiful song, and is frequently confined and bred as a cage-bird.

Shamanism, the religion of the hyperborean races, the Eskimos of N. America and some of the peoples of Uralo-Altaic stock in Siberia and in the extreme north of Europe. Its range was at one time much wider, and it was, moreover, introduced into China as a new religion in the 18th century. Its name is derived from the shamans, or priests, who are the mediators between man and the spirit world. A certain hysterical tendency, if not actual mental alienation, seems necessary for the forma tion of a shaman; and his de liverances are made while he is in a delirious or ecstatic condition. In all his conjurations the magic drum is a sine qua non; and the shaman himself must possess mimicry of the highest order, so that he may carry his audience with him in imagination. The shaman not only heals diseases, he foretells the future; and he has the power of projecting his spirit to remote distances where he sees what is doing in other lands. Indeed, there is much in shamanism that connects it with the clairvoyance of the middle ages. There are 'good' and 'bad' shamans; the latter class practise their art p rely for the sake of gain. As a rule, this priestly caste appears to be restricted to men; but among the Yakuts there are female as well as male shamans, and the forner are held to be imbued with the greater power. Shamanism, as practised by the Lapps, is fully described in Scheffer's History of Lapland (1674); and Stadling (Through Siberia, 1901) gives an account of the shamans of the Lena district. See also Abercromby's Preand Proto-historic Finns (1898); Sieroshevski's Yakuty (1896)— English abridgment by W. G. Sumner in Jour. Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. xxxi. (1901).

Shammai, a Jewish rabbi or scribe, was a leading member of the Sanhedrin in the days of Herod the Great. His name is usually coupled with that of Hillel. Both masters gave their to schools of thought. While Hillel created a spirit of learned exclusiveness, Shammai was intensely national rather than esoteric. The so-called 'Eighteen

names

Decrees' were carried by Shammaites. The first twelve of these forbade the purchase of food from Gentiles; the next five forbade the learning of their languages, and interdicted all intercourse with them. See Edersheim's Life and Times of Jesus (2 vols. 1883).

Shamo. See GOBI DESERT. Shamokin, bor., Northumberland co., Pa., 46 m. N.w. of Reading, 80 m. by rail, on the Phila. and Read, and the Pa. R. Rs. It has large coal-mining interests and manufactures of silk and knit goods, overalls, powder, foundry products, etc. The census of manufactures in 1905 returned

of which he was enabled to impress the doctrine of the Trinity on the Irish mind. As a reward for the gallantry of the Irish regiments in the S. African War, all Irish soldiers in the British army are permitted to wear a sprig of shamrock on St. Patrick's Day.

Shamrock I., II., III. See AMERICA CUP.

Shamyl (1797-1871), Les hian chieftain, was born at Himry in Daghestan. Becoming a priest, or mollah, he resisted the Russians at Himry (1831), and afterwards became leader of the mountaineers of the Caucasus (1834)

at Wusung: connected by rail with Wusung, and by canals with all parts of the province. Its facilities for distribution, and the lack of deep water at the treaty ports in the north, have made it the entrepôt of all foreign trade north of Foochow and the greatest foreign market of the cn pire. Miles of wharves and five large dockyards hardly suffice for the traffic. The total imports amount in value to from $120,000,000 to $125,000 000, and the exports (principally silk, cotton, tea, rice, hides, wool, and cereals) to from $65,000,000 to $70,000,000. Cotton-spinning, silk-winding, ship

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Shanghai. Edwards.)

1. The Bund. (Photo by Exclusive News Agency.) 2. Tea-house, supposed original of the Willow Pattern.' (Photo by N. P.

48 industrial establishments, with $1,114,931 capital, and an output valued at $1,443,915. Besides coal, garden truck and dairy products are shipped. Edgewood and Maysville parks are features of interest. The first settlement here was made in 1831. The town was laid out in 1835, and in 1864 the borough was incorporated. Pop. (1900) 18,202; (1910) 19,588.

Shamrock, the national badge of Ireland, is generally a variety of Dutch clover, in which the centre of each leaflet is tinged with purple. The wood-sorrel (Oxalis acetosella) is thought to be the true shamrock of St. Patrick, through the instrumentality

in their struggle against Russian aggression. By adopting a policy of guerilla warfare he completely baffled the efforts of the Russians to suppress him, and on more than one occasion (1839, 1849) escaped in a wonderful manner when his fastnesses (e.g. Achulgo) were taken by storm; but finally he was captured (1859), after a most desperate resistance, on the plateau of Gunib in Daghestan, and, after spending some time in honorable captivity at Kaluga in Russia, died at Medina in Arabia.

Shanghai, city and treaty port, prov. Kiang-su, China, on 1. bk. of Hwang-po, 12 m. above its junction with the Yang-tse-kiang

building, and the manufacture of matches, rice paper, ice, and furniture are the chief industrial branches. The French and the British and American settlements, almost self-governing, extend about 5 m. below the city along the river front, and from 3 to 4 m. inland. In 1901 the population of the British settlement exceeded 350,000, of whom less than 7,000 are foreigners. The total population, including that of the native city, probably exceeds 600,000. Shanghai was taken by the British in 1842, and was opened to foreign trade in the same year.

Shan-hai-kuan, frontier tn., China, between provs. Chi-li and

Shanklin

Shing-king, 3 m. from the sea; an important pass in the Great Wall. Shanklin, WILLIAM ARNOLD

(1864), American educator, born in Carrollton, Mo.; was graduated at Hamilton College in 1883; ordained to the Methodist ministry in 1889; held pastorates at Peru, Kan. (1887-9), Fort Scott (1889-90), Spokane, Wash. (18903), Seattle (1893-6), Dubuque, Ia. (1896-1900), and Reading, Pa. (1900-3); became president of Upper Iowa Univ. in 1905; and of Wesleyan Univ., Middletown, Conn., in 1908.

Shannon, riv., Ireland, issues (alt. 300 ft.) on border of Co. Leitrim, winds s. and s.w., passing through Loughs Allen, Boderg, Ree, and Derg to Limerick, below which it widens into an estuary, and enters the Atlantic between Loop Head and Kerry Head. Length, 225 m.

Shannon, JAMES JEBUSA (1862), English portrait painter, born at Auburn, N. Y., and a pupil of Sir Edward Poynter at the South Kensington Art School, London. A remarkable portrait of Henri Vigne that received medals at Paris, Berlin, and Vienna, was followed by a portrait of Lady Granby, marked by such admirable qualities that he became one of the most popular painters in London. He made a number of visits to the United States, where he painted portraits of Mrs. Herbert M. Sears and her daughters, Mrs. Robert J. Gammell and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller. Among his noted English portraits are those of Lady Revelstoke, Lady Marjorie Manners, Mrs. Charlesworth (for which a medal was awarded at Chicago in 1893), Lady Henry Cavendish-Bentinck, Sir Alfred Lyall, the Duchess of Portland, and Princess Margaret of Connaught. He was elected to the Royal Acade.ny in 1897.

Shannon, WILSON (1802-77), American politician, born at St. Clairsville, O. He was educated at Transylvania University and was admitted to the bar. He was governor of Ohio in 1838-42 and United States minister to Mexico in 1843-46, leaving at the beginning of the Mexican War. He was appointed governor of Kansas by President Pierce in 1855 and had a stormy administration, terminated by his resignation a year later. He went to Kansas with predilections in favor of the pro-slavery party, but was unable to keep in accord with its leaders and was threatened with assassination for not obeying their behests.

Shans, a Mongoloid people who form the bulk of the population of Siam, N.E. Burma, Assam, and S. Yün-nan, and for

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merly ranged as far north as the Yang-tse-kiang basin. The most general collective name is Tai, or Thai, as in Tai-Shan. They form compact groups in Siam, in the Lao states, and in the Shan states proper (Kiang - Hung, KiangTung, Kiang-Sen, Kiang - Rai) between the rivers Salwin and Mekong. Here they maintain a semi-independent political status under the British protectorate. They form a connecting link between the Chinese in the north and the Siamese in the south, being of light-yellowish complexion, described by some observers as 'sallow,' and not much darker than that of S. Europeans. The hair is always black, long, and lank; but the black or darkbrown eyes are almost straight, certainly less oblique than the Chinese.

But the true Mongol expression is betrayed in the short, broad nose, rather high cheek bones, somewhat broad and flat features, and low stature, averaging about 5 ft. 4 in. or 5 ft. 5 in. The language is a distinct member of the monosyllabic or isolating Indo-Chinese family, spoken with several tones, and closely allied to Siamese, but with a very large number of terms common also to Chinese. The Shans are mostly semi-civilized, with a general knowledge of letters, good agriculturists, and skilled workers in metals. Their culture is essentially Siamese, as shown by their social institutions, and especially by the form of Buddhism which all outwardly profess, while at heart still spirit or demon worshippers.

Shan-si, inland prov., China; area, 81,800 sq. m.; is chiefly a plateau, 2,800 to 4,500 ft. above the sea, and hemmed in by the Yellow R. on w. Deep gorges running N. and s. intersect the plateau, and render communication so difficult that practically only two roads exist through the province. In minerals the province is immensely rich. The Ho-shan range divides a coal field estimated by Reid at 35,000 sq. m. in extent the eastern half anthracite, the western bituminous, and rich in iron. Salt and petroleum exist. The province lies under a deep mantle of loess, the vertical cleavage of which leads to erosin of deep ravines, in the sides of which are cave dwellings. The soil is marvellously fertile if rain falls soon after seed is sown. Without this famines ensue, and the difficulty of communication renders help impossible.

Car

riage is entirely by carts and pack-mules. Natives are energetic traders outside their own province, and Shan-si banks enjoy high character for ability and honesty. Tai-yuan is the capital. Tse-chou promises to be a centre

Shari

ΟΙ coal industry. Pop. (1902) 12,200,450.

Shan States lie north and east of Burma. Those formerly under Burmese and now under British control have a total area of 68,165 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 1,237,749. They are divided into two groups-the northern, consisting of six states; and the southern (which includes the state of Kiang-Tung on the French and Siamese frontiers), of thirty-seven states. In addition to these, the commissioner of the Mandalay division has charge of two statesHkamtilong, N. of Myitkyina district; and Mong-mit, which is temporarily administered as a subdivision of the Ruby Mines district. Two other states, Sinkalinghkamti and Hsawng-hsup, near Manipur, are under the supervision of the commissioner of the Sagaing division. See also SHANS.

Shantar Islands, a group of small islands off the Maritime Province, Russia, in the Gulf of Udskoi. The largest are Great Shantar, Little Shantar, and Feklistov.

The

Shan-tung, maritime prov., China; area, 56,000 sq. m.; forms a sort of island between deltas of Yellow and Yang-tse-kiang rivers. The w. is traversed by Grand Canal, and forms part of Peking plain; the E. is mountainous, and terminates in promontory extending towards Korea. Weihai-wei, Kiao-chau, and Chefoo (Chi-fu) are its chief harbors. Large coal fields lie near Po-shan, Wei-hsien, and Ichou-fu. province is rich in fruits; produces Indian corn, millet, wheat, buckwheat, beans, and indigo. The sea is full of fish-herrings, cod, mackerel, and oysters. Pongee silk and straw braid are the chief foreign exports. Natives emigrate in large numbers to Manchuria. The climate is very bracing; the rainfall extends from April to September. Shantung contains the tombs of Confucius and Mencius, the sacred Mount Tai-shan, and rock-caryings of Han period. Chi-nan-fu is the residence of the governor. Pop. (1902) 38,247,900.

N.N.E.

Shapinshay, isl., Orkney group, Scotland, 34 m. of Kirkwall, covers an area of 6,733 ac. It is low and flat. Cultivation is good. There are Pictish and Scandinavian remains. Colonel Balfour's castle, in Scotch baronial style, was erected in 1847. Pop. 769.

Shari, riv., the chief feeder of Lake Chad, Africa, rises in N. Central Africa and flows N.W. generally. Most of the headstreams are as yet unexplored. From Milui the Shari, or Ba Buso, forms the boundary between Bagirmi and Kamerun, and at Kusuri is joined by its largest

tributary, the Logone, on the left bank. In the rainy season the river attains a breadth of 4 m.

Shark, a general name applied to all the larger Elasmobranch fishes of the sub-order Selachoidei, the smaller members of this sub-order being called dog-fish. Sharks have an elongated and very flexible body, terminating in a powerful tail, and having extraordinary swimming powers, both from the point of view of speed and of endurance. Many inhabit the open ocean, and are typical pelagic fish, but the smaller forms haunt the coasts. Though reaching their maximum development in the warmer seas

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forty feet in length, and is found in tropical and subtropical seas. From the size of the teeth of a shark believed to belong to this species, found on parts of the ocean floor, as well as fossil in Pliocene beds in Suffolk, it would appear that formerly it reached a size very much greater than that of any known living specimen. To this family belongs also the foxshark or thresher, as well as the large basking - shark. To the small family Rhinodontidæ belongs the single species known as Rhinodon typicus, a measured specimen of which exceeded fortyfive feet in length. This shark occurs in the Indian Ocean, and

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bers of this genus are groundhaunting fish. The head bears leaf-like expansions, comparable to those of the angler and the seahorses, and having apparently the same effect-to give the fish a resemblance to a weed-colored stone. The Port Jackson shark (Cestracion Philippi) is a comparatively small form belonging to the family Cestraciontidae; fossil representatives are very numerous in secondary rocks. The teeth are flattened and pavementlike, the animals using them to crush the molluscs, upon which they chiefly feed. Both the dorsal fins have a spine in front. The family Spinacidæ includes

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of the globe, a few extend into the Arctic region. All are carnivorous, and in very many cases have powerful teeth. On the other hand, some sharks have small teeth, and feed on invertebrates or small fishes. To the family Carchariidae belong sharks which have two dorsal fins (both without spines) and a nictitating membrane. This family includes the typical sharks of the genus Carcharias, also the topes (Galeus), the hammerhead (Zygæna), and the hounds (Mustelus). In the family Lamnidæ the dorsal fins are similar, but the nictitating membrane is absent. Here belong the porbeagle (Lamna) and Carcharodon Rondeletti, which is known to reach

Shan-tung Peninsula.

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perhaps also in the Pacific. It may be distinguished by the posterior position of the first dorsal fin, the depressed shape of the body, and the broad, flattened snout. The teeth are small. In the family Notidanidæ the single dorsal fin is placed very far back, and the gill-slits may be six or seven in number in place of the usual five. The teeth are comblike. To this family belong a number of comparatively small sharks, of which Notidanus griseus occurs in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. The family Scylliidæ includes the British dogfishes, as well as some larger forms, such as the species of Crossorhinus, to which the name of shark is applied. The mem

the spiny or picked dog-fishes (Acanthias), as well as some larger forms, of which the most important is Lamargus borealis, the Greenland shark, which occasionally strays southward. It reaches a length of fifteen feet, and habitually attacks the right whale. Although sharks are often very destructive to food fish, and in warm seas are dangerous to man, yet not only are some of the smaller kinds eaten, but in eastern countries there is an important trade in the fins, which are used as a source of gelatine, and also, in China, as a food from which soups and other delicacies are prepared. A considerable export of sharks' fins is made from California to the East. For the

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