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NELSON'S ENCYCLOPÆDIA.

VOL. XI.

Saxophone, a brass musical instrument invented by Adolphe Sax. It consists of a conical brass tube, curved forward and upwards at the bottom, and having a short section bent backward at the top, upon which a mouthpiece and reed resembling those of the clarinet are fitted. The instrument contains twenty lateral holes, which are covered by keys and studs, and manipulated by the first three fingers of each hand of the player. Saxophones, like saxhorns, are made in a variety of keys and sizes, but all are fingered in a similar manner. Saxophones are seldom used in the orchestra; but in many

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Franklin Institute for his reflecting pyrometer. In 1837 he was appointed curator of the standard weighing apparatus of the U. S. Mint in Philadelphia, and superintendent of construction of balances and apparatus for branch mints. He also invented a deepsea thermometer used by the U. S. Coast Survey.

Say, JEAN BAPTISTE (17671832), French writer on political economy, born at Lyons. He popularized political economy in France, and was a disciple of Adam Smith, whose method he closely adopted. In 1799 he was given a seat in the tribunate, but retired when Napoleon assumed the throne. His works are as follows: Traité d'Economie Politique (1802; Eng. trans. 1821); Catéchisme d'Economie Politique (1815; Eng. trans. 1816); Letters à Malthus sur Différents Sujets d'Economie Politique (1820; Eng. trans. 1821); Cours Complet d'Economie Politique Pratique (6 vols. 1829). He also wrote De PAngleterre et des Anglais (1815; Eng. trans. 1816).

Say, LÉON (1826-96), French financier, grandson of the above, was born at Paris, and elected a member of the National Assembly in 1871. He became minister of finance in 1872, in 1876, in 1877, and 1879. In 1878 he was presiIdent of the French International

Monetary Conference. He was president of the Senate in 1880-81, and minister of finance in 1882. Among his works are Turgot (Eng. trans. 1888); Economie Sociale (1891); Contre le Socialisme (1896); and Les Finances de la France sous la Troisième République (4 vols. 1898-1901). He also edited Dictionnaire des Finances (2 vols. 1883-94) and Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Economie Politique (2 vols. 1891-2).

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Say, THOMAS (1787-1834), American naturalist, born Philadelphia. He was one of the founders of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia (1812). After a short exploring visit through Georgia, he joined Stephen Long's Rocky Mountain expedition as geologist in 1819. In the following year he accom

panied Long as geologist and botanist on his exploring trip to the sources of the Missouri. He was author of American Entomology (3 vols. 1824-8), and American Conchology (completed and edited by W. G. Binney, 1858).

Sayana, or SYANA, a Hindu scholar of the 14th century. In conjunction with his brother, Madhava or Madhavacharya, he is noted for a commentary on the Rigveda, which has been much discussed, the result being destructive of its authoritative and its representative character. By some writers Sayana and Madhava are regarded as one person, identical with the latter.

Saybrook, tn., Middlesex co., Conn., 29 m. E. of New Haven, on the Connecticut R. and about 7 m. from Long Island Sound. It is on the N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R. It manufactures small metal articles, ivory goods, augers, gimlets, and boxes. Its town hall contains in its archives the early records of the original settlement established in 1635 by the younger John Winthrop at Saybrook Point and named in honor of the Puritan noblemen, Lord Say and Lord Brooke. The town was united with the colony of Connecticut in 1644. It was the seat of the Collegiate School of Connecticut, now Yale University, from 1701 to 1716. The Saybrook Platform was adopted here in 1708 by a synod of the Congregational Church. Saybrook was originally on both river and sound, and included also Chester, Old Saybrook, Essex, and Westbrook. Pop. (1910) 1,907.

Sayce, ARCHIBALD HENRY (1846), English philologist, born at Shirehampton, near Bristol. In 1870 he became tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and in 1876 deputy professor of comparative philology in the University of Oxford; professor of Assyriology in 1891. He was on the committee for the revision of the Old Testament (1874-84). Among his many works are: The Principles of Comparative Philology (1875); Introduction to the Science of Language (4th ed. 1900); The Monuments

of the Hittites (1881); Herodotus (1883); The Ancient Empires of the East (1884); the Hibbert Lectures on Babylonian Religion' (1887); The Hittites (1889); The Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1894); Babylonians and Assyrians (1900); Records of the Past (1874-77, 1888-92); Egyptian and Babylonian Religions (1903); Archæology of Cuneiform Inscriptions (1907).

Sayre, bor., Bradford co., Pa., 17 m. S.E. of Elmira, N. Y., on the N. branch of the Susquehanna R., and on the Leh. Val. and the D., L. and W. R.Rs. It is located in an agricultural region adjacent to the coal fields. It possesses the Robert Packer Hospital and two parks. Its industries include the Leh. Val. railway shops, stamping works, machine shops, metal works, and manufactories of car wheels and stove fixtures. There is a trade in lumber and coal, and in the cereals, dairy products, vegetables, and poultry raised in the surrounding district. The place was first settled in 1876. Pop. (1910) 6,426.

Sayre, LEWIS ALBERT (18201900), American surgeon, born in Madison, N. J. He graduated at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, in 1842, began to practise in New York, and in 1853-73 was surgeon to Bellevue Hospital. He was one of the founders of the Bellevue Hospital Medical School (1861), and was a member of the faculty until 1898, when the school became a part of New York University. He was also founder of the New York Academy of Medicine and the New York Pathological Society, and one of the founders of the American Medical Association. He was a specialist in diseases of the hip and spine, and invented many instruments to deal with them. He was one of the first surgeons to use plaster of Paris in spinal complaints. He published: On the Mechanical Treatment of Chronic Inflammation of the Joints of the Lower Extremities (1865); Practical Manual for the Treatment of ClubFoot (1869); Lectures on Orthopedic Surgery and Diseases of the Joints (1876, new edition, 1883); and Spinal Curvature and its Treatment (1877).

Sayre, STEPHEN (1734-1818), American patriot, born at Southampton, Long Island, N. Y. He graduated at Princeton in 1757, and became a banker in London, England, of which city he was sheriff in 1773-74. Owing to his outspoken sympathy for the revolted colonies, he was, shortly after the beginning of the war, accused of treason and was imprisoned for a time in the Tower. Upon his release, he became active as a self-appointed agent in en

deavoring to secure assistance for the colonies, and also acted for a short time as secretary to Arthur Lee when Lee visited Berlin, and vainly endeavored to persuade Frederick the Great to recognize the colonies. For his services in this capacity he obtained partial payment from Congress. In 1783 he returned to America; was later engaged for a time in business in Havre, France; acted as an agent of the Revolutionists in 1792; and returning to America once more was an active opponent of Washington's administration. He published The English Deceived (1768), and a Memorial setting forth his claims to Congress (1808).

Sayreville, tn., Middlesex co., N. J., 6 m. from New Brunswick, on the Raritan R. It has water and electric railway communication with New Brunswick and South Amboy. It is located in the rich clay fields, and has manufactures of bricks, soda water, cigars, and powder. Pop. (1910) 5,783.

Sbarretti, DONATUS (1856), Roman Catholic prelate born in Montefranco, Italy; took his theological course at the College of St. Appollinaris, Rome; was for several years professor of speculative and moral philosophy at the College of the Propaganda, Rome; was ordained (1879) while holder of that chair; had charge at the Propaganda of Affairs of the Church in the United States; became private chamberlain to Pope Leo XIII., first auditor of the apostolic legation in the United States (1893-1900), bishop of Havana (1900), apostolic delegate extraordinary to the Philippines and titular archbishop of Ephesus (1901), and apostolic delegate to Canada (1902).

Sc. (scilicet), namely; understood.

Scab. See SHEEP-Diseases of.
Scabies. See ITCH.

Scabious, a genus of hardy herbaceous plants belonging to the order Dipsaceæ. They bear terminal heads of white, rosy, purple, or yellowish flowers, and many are desirable garden plants. S. succisa, the primrose scabious, is a common European plant, which bears purplish-blue flowers. The sweet scabious (S. atropurpurea) is a common garden plant, with quaint flowers of many tints on tall stems.

Scad, a name for the common horse-mackerel.

Scævola, a family of the Mucian clan at ancient Rome. (1.) GAIUS MUCIUS SCEVOLA, who is said to have won the name Scavola ('left-handed') by his attempt to murder Porsena, in which he lost his right hand. For the story, see PORSENA. (2.) QUINTUS MUCIUS SCEVOLA, known as the augur, was prætor and governor

of Asia in 121 B.C., and consul in 117. He lived to about 88 B.C., and Cicero was his pupil in law. (3.) QUINTUS MUCIUS SCEVOLA, son of No. 2, was consul in 95 B.C., and afterwards governed Asia with great justice. Eventually he became pontifex maximus; but he was murdered in 82 B.C., after being proscribed by the Marians. He was famous for his equity, his eloquence, and his knowledge of law; he first made a system of the civil law.

Sca Fell, mt., Cumberland, England, near head of Wast Water. Its summit, Scafell Pike (3,210 ft.), is the highest eminence in England.

Scagliola, stucco, or imitation stonework, for interior decoration, columns, pilasters, invented in Italy (1600-50), is formed by a combination of pure white plaster and glue applied to a prepared surface. Gypsum, finely pow dered and calcined, is mixed with glue and isinglass to imitate the whiteness of marble, the veining being reproduced by coloring of metallic oxides, and the whole polished with pumice-stone; with tripoli, charcoal, and linen; with felt, tripoli, and oil; and finally with pure oil, till a perfect surface has been formed. Breccias, granite, porphyries are imitated by cutting into the stucco and filling the cavities with appropriately colored paste.

Scabious succisa.

2

1, Flower; 2, fruit; 3, section of fruit.

Scala, DELLA, a distinguished Italian family, the members of which, as 'Vicars of the Holy Roman Empire,' erected an illegal authority on the basis of impe

Scala Santa

rial right in Verona. The family attained its greatest height under Can Grande della Scala, who was the (imperialist) Ghibellines's greatest general, and his nephew Mastino, whose epoch embraced the first half of the 14th century. The decay of the house began immediately after the death of the latter, and in 1387 their ruin was finally accomplished by Gian Galeazzo of Milan. The Scali were munificent friends of literature, Can Grande being the patron of Dante. See Sismondi's History of the Italian Republics, Symonds's Renaissance in Italy (1875-86).

Scala Santa. See SANTA SCALA.

Scalchi, SOFIA (1850), Italian contralto singer, born in Turin, and a pupil of Boccabadati. She made her début at Mantua in 1866, and sang afterwards with great success in London, St. Petersburg, Vienna, and other European capitals. In 1883 she came to the United States with the Mapleson company, and for the next ten or twelve years was exceedingly popular. Her voice was of a peculiar clarinet-like quality, and of exceptional range and power. She was famous for her performance of the leading contralto parts in Mignon, Semiramide, Faust, The Huguenots, Aida, Linda, and Martha. retired from the stage in 1898 to teach singing in Paris.

She

Scalds. See BURNS AND SCALDS. Scale, in music. See MUSIC. Scale Insects. See Coccus INSECTS.

Scales are outgrowths of the skin especially characteristic of reptiles and fishes. The scales of reptiles are folds of the epidermis, which correspond to the feathers of birds and the hairs of mammals. Such scales also occur on the legs of birds, on the tail of the rat, and over the body of the pangolins. The scales of fishes, on the other hand, belong to the dermis, or deeper layer of the skin. In elasmobranchs there is a special type, with a basis of bone, known as dermal denticles or placoid scales.

Scales, weighing machines. See BALANCE.

Scaliger, the name of two of the greatest classical scholars Europe has produced. JULIUS CESAR SCALIGER (1484-1558), Italian humanist, was born in the castle of Riva on Lake Garda, Italy, a descendant of the Veronese Della Scala family. Other accounts, cited by Scioppius in his Scaliger Hypobolimæus (1607), state that he was the son of an obscure sign-painter. He devoted himself to the study of the classics and medicine, and practised the latter at Agen in Guienne (1528). His first notable

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works were two orations in reply to the Ciceronianus of Erasmus, full of venomous abuse. Scaliger was a voluminous author, and was perpetually engaged in controversy, his chief works being De Causis Linguæ Latina, Poetices Libri Septem ad Sylvium, Commentarii de Causis Plantarum Theophrasti, Aristotelis Historia de Animalibus, Commentarii in Hippocratis Librum de Insomniis. See Lives by Laffore (1860) and Magen (1880).-JOSEPH JUSTUS SCALIGER (1540-1609), French scholar, son of the above, born at Agen. After a stay of four years in Paris he proceeded on a tour through Europe as companion to the Sieur de la Roche-Pozay, and remained under the protection of that family for many years. By

his editions of the classical authors and his De Emendatione Temporum (1583), wherein he once for all fixed the chronology of many of the leading events in the ancient world, he placed himself in the front rank of European scholars. Summoned to the University of Leyden in 1593 as the successor of Justus Lipsius, for the next sixteen years he labored there; but during his last years he became embroiled with the Jesuits, and by his overbearing insolence brought down on himself the invectives of Scioppius. Besides his recensions of the Roman poets, he edited Eusebius (1606), Manilius (1579), and other works in a style unsurpassed for critical acumen and practical sagacity. His love of truth was a passion, but he sometimes was obstinately dogmatic in the defence of positions afterwards discovered to be untenable. See Life by Bernays (1855), and article by Mark Pattison in Quarterly Review, vol. cviii.

Scallop. See PECTEN.

Scalp is composed of (1) the skin over the vault of the cranium; (2) the underlying subcutaneous fatty tissue; and (3) the occipitofrontalis muscle and its aponeurosis. From the pericranium, or periosteum of the skull, it is separated by a layer of loose connective tissue, whic allows of free mobility. The skin of the human scalp is thicker than that of any other part of the body. Owing to its great recuperative power, arge flaps of the scalp may be separated from the periosteum below without a tendency to slough.

Scalping, a practice known to most tribes of N. American Indians in which a trophy of victory was secured by removing a part or all of the skin from the head of a fallen foe. This trophy usually served two purposes: (a) it was a guarantee that the bearer killed or was present at the killing of an enemy; (b) and it was the

Scandinavia

chief object and occasion of the scalp dance, an important ceremony performed by the female relatives of the warrior bringing in the scalp. The head-hunting of the Dyaks of Borneo may be considered as another form of scalping, the motives being the same. "See Clark's Indian Sign Language (1884).

Scamander, river of antiquity, flows from Mt. Ida through the plain of Troy, and after uniting with the Simois falls into the sea at the entrance of the Hellespont. It is now called the Menderez.

Scammon, city, Cherokee co., Kan., 8 m. N. of Columbus, on the San Francisco R. R. It is also a terminus of the Pittsburg and Scammon Interurban Electric line. It is a coal-mining town. Pop. (1910) 2,233.

Scammony is obtained from the root of Convolvulus scammonia, found in Syria and Asia Minor. The root is either dried, when it occurs in shrivelled, cylindrical, brownish portions, with a pale fibrous fracture and faint odor, or is incised when growing, when a brittle gum resin exudes, of dark-brown color and peculiar odor. Scammony resin, which is extracted by alcohol and precipitated by water, is used in medicine as a powerful purgative, and for the destruction of worms.

Scandalum Magnatum, defamatory words spoken of peers, judges, and other great officers of the realm, formerly punishable in England, even in cases when the words would not be actionable as slander if spoken of other persons. The statutes dealing with this offence were repealed

in 1887.

Scanderbeg-i.e. Iskander (Alexander) Beg originally GEORGE CASTRIOT (1407 – 67), Albanian chieftain, was taken to Constantinople as a hostage at seven years of age. Forced to embrace Mohammedanism and enter the Turkish army, he became a favorite of Murad II. But the Sultan having taken possession of his principality on his father's death, Scanderbeg deserted (1443), renounced Mohammedanism, and proclaimed the independence of Albania. Then for a quarter of a century he successfully resisted all the efforts of the Turks to conquer him. See Life by Paganel (1855), and Gibbon's Decline and Fall, ed. Bury, vol. vii. (1900).

Scanderoon. See ALEXAN

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ni's The Scandinavian Question (1905).

Scandinavian Mythology. See MYTHOLOGY-Northern.

Scandium, Sc, 44.1, is a metal of the 'rare earths.' It has not teen isolated in the elementary state, but forms colorless salts, derived from an oxide Sc2O3, that do not exhibit an absorption spectrum.

Scania, anc. prov. of Sweden, now comprised in the counties of Malmöhus and Kristianstad.

Scapegoat. See AZAZEL.

Scaphoid Bones exist one in each wrist and one in each ankle. The former lie in the upper row of carpal bones; the latter are situated at the inner side of the ankle-joint, between the astragalus behind and the cuneiform Lones in front.

Scapula, or SHOULDER BLADE, is one of the two bones, the other being the clavicle, which form

Scapula, or Shoulder Blade.

1. Outer surface; 2, inner surface: a, cromion process; c, coracoid process; cb, coracoid border; s, spine; g, glenoid cavity.

the pectoral arch or shoulder girdle. It is embedded, apex downwards, in the muscles of the back, and its mobility allows of corresponding freedom in the movements of the arm and the shoulder. In its glenoid cavity the head of the humerus is received. The clavicle articulates with the acromion_process.

Scarab, or SCARABEUS, a beetle held as sacred by the ancient Egyptians, and reproduced by them as amulets, which were worn as a protection against the evil eye. Scarabs (amulets) were also placed upon the breast of the dead. They were made of stone, and in the true scarab amulet the insect original is reproduced with faithful and often beautiful detail; but a number of these amulets ('scarabæoids') only faintly suggest a beetle, and bear other designs. Scarabs were also used as seals. See W. M. Flinders Petrie's Historical Scarabs (1389), and Newberry's Egyptian Seals and Signet Rings (1905).

Scarabæus (zoological), a genus of dung-eating lamellicorn beetles. The most famous species

is S. sacer, the sacred beetle of the Egyptians (see SCARAB), which also occurs in S. Europe. According to Fabre, the female detaches a portion of the droppings of cattle or other animals, and rolls it up into a ball. This is then dropped into a hole which the beetle excavates. She then buries herself with the ball, and remains buried until the dung is completely consumed, when she again emerges in search of a fresh supply. It was this emergence after a period of quiescence underground which apparently led the Egyptians to regard the beetle as a type of immortality. It apparently remains entirely quiescent underground through the hot weather, emerging again in autumn. The egg is laid in the middle of the dung in the autumn and the chamber carefully closed. The American dung-beetles are of numerous species and similar habits.

Scarborough, munic. and parl. bor. and fashionable wateringplace, N. Riding, Yorkshire, England, 21 m. N.E. of Malton. The town is divided into two parts by a bold promontory called the 'Scaur' (300 ft.), on which are the castle garth and ruins of the ancient fortress. Seaward are

precipitous cliffs, and on the fand side a narrow causeway across the moat leads to the platform. The old town rises in tiers below the castle, and is bounded s. by a picturesque ravine, the Ramsdale valley, crossed by two ornamental bridges, affording

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Egyptian Scarab.

1. Stone scarab with wings, sun, and asps of silver. 2. The sacred beetle (Scarabaeus sacer). 3. Scarab (British Museum). 4. Scarab seal from the tomb of Maket (time of Thothmes III.). 5, 6. Scarabs from monuments.

communication with the fashionable and rapidly growing district beyond, where also are the Holbeck Gardens. The steep slopes of the cliff have been converted into ornamental grounds, and at the foot is the Spa, now serving chiefly as a lounge for visitors and a centre of amusements. The present buildings were opened in 1880. A fine promenade over

looks the sea. South of the castle is the harbor, frequented by fishing boats. The part of the town N. of the castle is fronted by the North Cliff, on the slopes of which are the Clarence Gardens; and along the base extends the Royal Albert Drive, continued around the foot of the castle promontory by the new Marine Extension Drive. The church of St. Mary is ancient; a new town hall, adapted from St. Nicholas Mansion, was opened in 1903. Pop. (1911) 37,204.

Scarlatti, ALESSANDRO (16591725), Italian musical composer, born at Trapani in Sicily. For some years he was attached to the court of Christiana, queen of Sweden, at Rome, and in 1694 was appointed musical director to the viceroy of Naples. Subsequently he became a teacher in three of the four conservatories in Naples. He was the founder of the modern school of Italian opera, and a prolific composer in nearly every branch of music. The compositions of his son Domenico (1683-1757), one of the first composers for the harpsichord, did much to develop the technique of pianoforte-playing. See Life by E. J. Dent (1905).

Scarlet Fever, or SCARLATINA, an acute contagious fever, which may attack individuals at any age above infancy, but is commonest in young children. The risk is dependent upon the state of health or fatigue at the moment of peril. The onset of a typical attack (but many attacks are not typical) is shown by a general malaise sore throat, chill, headache, and vomiting. Some of these symptoms will most likely show themselves within a few hours, up to five days after infection; and in the typical case, within twenty-four hours of the preliminary symptoms, there will be a rash, beginning as a scarlet flush over the chest and inner sides of the thighs, spreading over the arms and legs, becoming punctiform, rarely showing on the head or face, though the latter is flushed with a high temperature. The throat is reddened, and often a patient will show the trouble in the throat only, especially if an adult. The glands below the ears are more or less tender and swollen. The tongue is heavily furred, with bright red spots (white strawberry tongue) where the papillæ project. Later the tongue is a hery red (red strawberry tongue), when the fur clears. The rash generally lasts for four or five days, and fades away from different parts in the order that it appeared on them. After that, desquamation or peeling begins. Temperature rises almost at once with the onset of other symptoms,

Scarlet Runner

reaching 103° or 104°, keeping that height for three or four days, then gradually falling, and reaches the normal generally in eight or ten days, unless complications or after-effects, such as suppuration, keep it raised.

Treatment. The first precaution is to isolate both patient and suspected persons, the latter for ten days. Six weeks from the onset is the minimum time for the risk of infection to have disappeared. The rooms used by a patient must be thoroughly disinfected, together with all clothing, and the walls scraped and fresh papered or whitewashed. Obviously, therefore, the fewer articles of dress and furniture there are in a sick-room the better. Milk is one of the most dreaded sources of infection, and where scarlet fever is prevalent the milk should always be boiled before use. The most infectious period is generally supposed to be during desquamation, though there are some who dispute that scarlet fever is conveyed by the skin shed. The body must be anointed with oil or vaseline during desquamation. Women in childbed are particularly susceptible to scarlet fever, and take it in a very virulent form. Diet must be very light. Milk and vichy water or soda water (half and half) constitute the safest food while the fever is high, with jellies, beef-tea, and arrowroot, and a generous supply of fluid, in the form of cold water, sipped slowly, barley-water, and lemonade. Temperature in young children is best brought down by cold sponging and wet packs, the latter inducing perspiration. Sedatives in small doses are sometimes needed. The throat must be kept clean by gargles, and the mouth by sponges dipped in boracic acid. Common complications are suppuration of glands (which must be then opened), swelling of the throat and consequent difficulty of breathing, albuminuria, and diphtheria. In convalescence all risk of chill must be most carefully avoided. Protozoa, termed cyclasters, found in the blood and urine, are believed to be the cause of the disease. Recently a new curative serum has been reported by Dr. Paul Moser of St. Anne's Hospital, Vienna.

Scarpa, ANTONIO (1747-1832), Italian anatomist and surgeon, born at Motta, near Treviso; became professor of anatomy at Modena (1772), and at Pavia (1784). He acquired a European reputation by his researches and treatises on the anatomy of the ear, the organs of smell, and the nerves of the heart. He was appointed surgeon to Napoleon (1804).

Scarpanto (anc. Carpathus),

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mountainous Turkish isl. in the Egean Sea, N.E. of Crete. The chief town is Aperi. Pop. 5,000.

Scarron, PAUL (1610-60), French dramatist, poet, and novelist, born in Paris; became an abbé, and received a benefice at Le Mans, but lived at Rome (1634) in the wildest debaucheries, which left him a helpless and deformed cripple. Having lost his benefice he returned to Paris (1646), and began a literary career. He attached himself to Mazarin and the queen-mother, Anne of Austria, during the minority of Louis XIV. His house was the rendezvous of all the wits and literati of the age, for Scarron was a most brilliant talker. A beautiful young girl, Françoise (or Francine) d'Aubigné, fell in love with the talent of the crippled dramatist and married him (1652); this lady was later on the famous Madame de Maintenon. Scarron wrote comedies in verse, one of which, L'Héritier Ridicule, so charmed Louis XIV. that he insisted on having it at once repeated, on the performance coming to an end. In burlesque poetry his Typhon (1644) is even yet readable, and his Virgile Travesti (1648-53) was exceedingly popular in its day. His prose nouvelles had enormous vogue, particularly the Roman Comique (1651-7), while his dramatic burlesques proper created a furore in Paris. His epigrams and jeux d'esprit were innumerable. His Works were collected in 1737, and by Baumet (2 vols. 1877). An English translation of his works appeared in 1892. See Life, in French, by Morillot (1888).

Scartazzini, GIOVANNI ANDREA (1837-1901), Swiss author and Dante scholar, was born at Bonde in canton Grisons, and labored as a pastor at various places. Among his books are A Handbook to Dante (Eng. trans. 1887), A Companion to Dante (Eng. trans. 1893), and Enciclopedia Dantesca (2 vols. 1895-8). He edited La Divina Commedia (text and commentary, 4 vols. 1874-90; new ed. 1900), Tasso's Gerusalemme Liberata (1871), and Petrarch's Canzoniere (1883).

Scattery, isl., Co. Clare, Ireland, in mouth of Shannon, 2 m. s.w. of Kilrush. It has a round tower, ruins of six churches, and a modern fort. An abbey was founded here in the 6th century by St. Senan. The remarkable bell shrine was formerly held in great veneration. Pup. (1901) 96.

Scaup (Fuliguia mariula), a duck which is a winter visitor to the United States and southern Europe. Its food consists of marine animals and plants. In the drake the head, neck, and chest are greenish black, the back marked with black and white, the

Scepticism

wings and tail dusky, and the under parts white. The female is chiefly brown.

Scaup Duck.

Scawfell. See SCA FELL. Scepticism, the philosophical doctrine that the human mind is incapable of attaining true knowledge. Agnosticism is generally used to denote that form of partial scepticism which relates to religious knowledge, and phenomenalism is that form of partial scepticism which denies our knowledge of anything outside the circle of phenomena. But scepticism is usually understood in the broader sense of doubt as to the possibility or validity of human knowledge generally. Of sceptical philosophers in this sense the most notable was Pyrrho of Elis. According to him man could never penetrate beyond the subjective affections which things produced in him to the true nature of the things themselves: his true attitude was one of indifference to all that happened. To justify this extreme doctrine, one of the later Pyrrhonists-Sextus Empiricusmade a collection of all the arguments which had been employed against the validity of human knowledge. A milder form of scepticism, which recognized various degrees of probability available for the practical guidance of life, prevailed during that period of the Platonic school which is known as the Middle Academy. This milder scepticism found a famous exponent in the Roman Cicero, though his importance is literary rather than philosophical, and through him it long after exercised an influence at the time of the revival of classical learning over humanists like Montaigne. In modern times scepticism has been of the partial rather than of the universal kind. One characteristic modern type has been that which depreciates the claims of scientific knowledge in order to favor those of religious faith and revelation-a type of which Pascal is an early representative. It has its anti-religious counterpart in the sceptical doctrine of the twofold truth, which had already been enunciated in the

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