view which is easily adapted to scientific purposes. The physiologist wants to represent the series of nervous changes from incoming stimulation through brain centres, and thence to outgoing movement, as continuous. And, again, the admission of mental causes and effects of physical changes seems to make havoc of the conservation of physical energy. For such reasons the theory of parallelism, according to which mental and cerebral changes are strictly correlated, but without mutual interference, is preferred by the majority of physiologists and psychologists. On the other hand, it is difficult, if not impossible, to put this theory into any satisfactory philosophical shape. (See criticism in Ward's Naturalism and Agnosticism, 1903, vol. ii.) An excellent general account of the whole subject is given in Stout's Manual of Psychology (1899). See PSYCHOLOGY.

Söul, SEOUL, or HAN-YANG, tn., cap. of Korea since 1392, 3 m. from r. bk. of Han R. and 75 m. from its mouth. The city walls are from 20 to 30 ft. high, with a circuit of 12 m. It is in railway communication with Chemulpo (25 m.). It is a miserably built place; but there are a Roman Catholic cathedral, a bell tower (1468), and a marble pagoda. Since 1904 the city has been under the control of the Japanese. Pop. (1902) 196,646.

Soulary, JOSEPHIN, properly JOSEPH MARIE (1815-91), French poet, born and died at Lyons, where his Genoese ancestors, the Solari, introduced a velvet industry. His Sonnets Humoristiques (1858), graceful, elegant, accurate in style and form, though not of the first order of poetry, are admirable literary miniatures-e.g. Les Deux Cortèges. In 1871 he wrote war songs (Pendant l'Invasion), composed also two comedies, and (1886) Promenade autour d'un Tiroir. Other works are Ephémères (1846 and 1857), Sonnets, Poèmes et Poésies (1864), Rimes Ironiques (1877). See Monograph in French by Mariéton (1884).

Soule, GIDEON LANE (17961879), American educator, born at Freeport, Me. After preparatory study at Phillips Exeter Academy he entered the junior class at Bowdoin College, where he graduated in 1818. He taught at Phillips Exeter for one year, and then resigned to prosecute professional studies. In 1822 he was appointed teacher of ancient languages at Exeter; he

was

chosen principal in 1838, and continued in this position until 1873, when he resigned, and was made principal emeritus. His administration was marked by the steady development of the acad

emy. Several important buildings were erected.

Soule, JOSHUA (1781-1867), American M. E. bishop, was born at Bristol, Me., and became a lay preacher at the age of seventeen. În 1804 he was made presiding elder of Maine. He assisted in preparing the constitution adopted by the delegated general conference of 1813, and was book-agent of the M. E. Church and editor of the Methodist Magazine from 1816 to 1820, when he was elected bishop. He declined for constitutional reasons, but was re-elected in 1824 after changes in the constitution had been adopted. After 1845 he was a bishop of the M. E. Church, South, with which divi

sion of the church he sided.

Soulé, PIERRE (1802-70), French American lawyer and politician, born at Castillon, France. He was educated at the Jesuits' College at Toulouse, at Bordeaux, and at Paris. While at Bordeaux he became implicated in an anti-royalist conspiracy and was obliged to remain in hiding for some time. At Paris he became prominent as an opponent of the government and was finally sentenced to prison and to pay a fine of 10,000 francs for a violent attack on the ministry in one of the liberal journals. He escaped from France, and eventually settled in the U. S. at New Orleans, where he was admitted to the bar and soon acquired a leading place in his profession. He was a member of the state senate in 1845-47, U. S. senator in 1847-53, and minister to Spain in 1853-55. He was coldly received in Spain, owing mainly to the well-known desire of the U. S. to acquire Cuba, and his violent temper led him into duels with the Duke of Alva and the French ambassador. He met Buchanan and Mason at Ostend in 1854, joined in their 'manifesto' issued there, and returned to the U. S. the following year.

He opposed the secession of Louisiana in 1861, but followed his state, was imprisoned on the capture of New Orleans in 1862, and when released served for a time in the Confederate army.

Soult, NICOLAS JEAN DE DIEU (1769-1851), marshal of France, was born at St. Amans-la-Bastide (Tarn), and in 1785 enlisted as a private soldier in the French army. Becoming general of brigade in 1794, he distinguished himself in Germany, especially at Altenkirchen (1796) and Stockach (1799). Masséna made him general of division in 1799, and he ably supported that commander in Switzerland and Italy. In 1804 Napoleon made him a marshal, and in 1807 Duke of Dalmatia, he having further distinguished

himself at Austerlitz and in Prussia. In 1808 he was put in command in S. Spain, fought the battle of Corunna, overran Portugal, defeated the Spaniards at Ocaña (1809), and subdued Andalusia, but was defeated at Talavera (1809) and at Albuera (1811). He was sent to hold Wellington in check, but suffered further defeats at Salamanca, Orthez, and Toulouse (1814), nevertheless accomplishing his mission in great part. After Waterloo he was banished from France (1816-19). He was, however, minister of war (1814-15, 1830-4, 1840-4), minister of foreign affairs (1839–40), and president of the cabinet (183234, 1839-47). In 1847 the rare dignity of marshal - general of France was conferred upon him. See his Mémoires (1854); Combes's Histoire Anecdotique de Jean de Dieu Soult (1870); and Salle's Vie Politique de Maréchal Soult (1834).

Sound, in ordinary language, is what we recognize by our sense of hearing. We learn by experience to associate the production of sound with a definite source, which is invariably a body in a state of more or less rapid vibration. The investigation and discussion of the way in which this vibration is started and maintained, and the way it is transferred to the air and transmitted through it as a disturbance capable of affecting our ear, constitute the branch of physical science known as sound. From one point of view the theory of sound forms a chapter in the general dynamic theory of elasticity, since its production and transmission depend upon the elasticity of matter in all states. The elasticity may be an essential property of the matter, as in the case of a tuning-fork, a cymbal, a bell, or the column of air in an organ pipe; or it may be an accidental property of the body, as in the case of the stretched strings of the harp, violin, or piano, or the stretched skin of a drum.

The ear recognizes a great variety of sounds, and can generally associate a definite kind of source with each sound heard. Not only so, but it can in many cases distinguish between the sounds given forth by two different sources of the same kind-such, for example, as the sounds of two voices. To this difference in quality as recognized by the ear there must correspond some difference in the character of the vibration as transmitted through the air. It is one important aim of physical science to investigate this difference. Another familiar difference between two sounds is the difference in pitch, the difference between what is called a high musical note and a low musical note.

Sound

It is on this characteristic, indeed. that the whole theory and practice of music is based. A third characteristic of sounds is their loudness or intensity, which must obviously depend upon the rate at which the disturbance is losing energy as it affects the organs of hearing. If we assume that a certain definite fraction of the whole energy present is used up in producing the sensation, then we find that the intensity of a sound as heard by us is proportional to the energy of the vibratory motion a relation probably fairly well satisfied.

These three characteristicsintensity, pitch, and qualitycorrespond each to some definite physical property of the aerial disturbance which gives rise to the sound. The essential nature of these is suggested by a study of the manner in which the sound is produced. Pitch depends upon the rate at which a series of símilar disturbances occurring at regular intervals falls upon our ear. The ear is not able to distinguish the individual disturbances when these come at a rate of about 25 per second; but not till the number is well over 30 per second does the pitch of the note become musically definite. The number of vibrations in a second is called the 'frequency' of the note. Hence the pitch of a note is determined by its frequency.

com

By whatever kind of vibrating body the pulsations are municated to the air, the vibrations of the air can only be of one general type. They consist of alternations of greater and smaller density, and constitute in the medium waves of condensation and rarefaction. Similar waves are transmitted through water and fluids generally; but in solids waves of distortion also exist. When we speak of sound travelling through other media than air, we mean waves of disturbances such that, when they pass into the air, they possess frequencies enabling them to be heard as sound-i.e. from 30 to about 40,000 vibrations per second. The upper limit is very variable according to the individual, some ears being capable of hearing high-pitched notes inaudible to other ears. It is highly probable also that the range of audibility differs in different kinds of animals.

The energy of the original vibratory motion determines the energy transmitted to the air, and this in its turn determines the intensity of sound heard. Thus we may say generally that pitch depends on the frequency, and intensity on the magnitude of the disturbance.

Quality then must depend on some other characteristic of wave

313

motion, and the remaining characteristic is the form of the wave. To produce a pure musical note the successive disturbances must all be of the same form. For example, in a note whose frequency is, say, 200 per second, the period of one disturbance is theth of a second. In this short interval the pulse or disturbance goes through all its phases. At any one point the density and pressure vary in a definite, assignable manner, which may, however, be different in different cases although the period is the same in all. It is this mode of variation within the period of the pulse which determines the form of the wave. The simplest discussion of the question is by means of the vibrations of stretched strings. When a stretched string is plucked at any point a wave is started, and it travels to and fro along it with a velocity which depends upon the tension in the string and its weight per unit length. Now a wave passes forward through the distance known as its wave-length in an interval of time equal to the period of the wave disturbance. Hence speed of propagation is equal to the wave-length divided by the period. But the period is the reciprocal of the frequency, and thus speed: =wavelength frequency. Now the longest wave which can be sent to and fro along a string with fixed ends is one whose wavelength is twice the length of the string. This longest wave will therefore vibrate with a frequency which is the lowest possible for this particular string of given weight and tension. The note corresponding to this lowest frequency is called the funda

a

FIG. 1.

mental note of the string. The mode of vibration is indicated in Fig. 1, a. But the string may also be thrown into a mode of vibration like that indicated in b (Fig. 1). Here the wave-length of the wave passing to and fro along the string is half that of the longest possible wave-length. Hence its frequency will be double that of the fundamental note. Similarly we may have the string vibrating in three, four, five, or more segments (c. d, Fig. 1), cor

Sound

responding to correspondingly shorter wave-lengths and correspondingly greater frequencies.

FIG. 2.

Thus, from any one string under constant tension we may get a series of notes whose frequencies are as the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc., the practical limit being determined by the imperfect flexibility of the string. But not only may the string give all these notes separately; it may also give them as a combined body of tone of complex form built up of the simple components. The modes of vibration may, in fact, be superposed as indicated in Fig. 2 (where a possible combination of a, b, c, Fig. 1, is shown), and evidently this compound vibration will be transmitted to the air, producing a form of wave that depends on the number and relative strengths of the component simple vibrations. It is, in fact, the presence of these overtones, or upper harmonics as they are called, which determines the quality of the tone produced. In the case of vibrating strings and vibrating columns of air (organ, flute, trumpet), the frequencies of the successive overtones are as the series of natural numbers; but this is not the case when the initial vibration is given by a vibrating reed, membrane, or plate. Övertones exist in these cases which are not harmonically related to the fundamental note. It is essential for musical purposes that the anharmonic overtones should not be very pronounced. They may be kept comparatively feeble by strengthening the fundamental tone by means of resonance.

The principle of resonance has been called the principle of sympathetic vibrations, and may be illustrated dynamically by means of two pendulums suspended from the same framework. When one of these pendulums is set in oscillation, it begins to influence the other, and to force upon it its own oscillation. But it is only when the natural period of oscillation of the second pendulum is equal to that of the first that this influence becomes strongly marked. In exactly the same way, and for exactly the same reason, one vibrating body such as a tuningfork can set in vibration a neighboring tuning-fork or stretched string which is tuned to the same note. A suitably shaped air cavity placed near the tuningfork will greatly increase the intensity of the note heard, the natural period of vibration of the mass of air in the cavity be

Ing equal to that of the tuningfork. Reed pipes in organs are provided with pipes of lengths corresponding to the pitch of the note given by the vibrating reed. This note is reinforced by the resonance of the column of air in the pipe. In the ordinary organ pipe the blowing of the air past the lip sets the column of air in the pipe into its natural period of vibration, so that the pitch of the note is entirely determined by the size of the pipe.

In a violin the different notes are got from the strings by 'stopping' them to different lengths. But the strings vibrating by themselves in air would not produce any body of tone, being too thin to obtain sufficient grip upon the air. The hollow body of the violin acts as a resonance box to all the various notes given by the strings.

It is resonance, again, which determines not only the quality of a voice but also the character of the vowel sounds uttered. The vibrations of the vocal cords are cf a complex character, and by appropriate form of the mouth cavity the speaker emphasizes certain of the components. This selective reinforcement by means of resonance results in a corresponding vowel quality of tone. By a suitable synthesis of simple tones, given by a series of tuningforks, Helmholtz was able to simulate the vowel sounds of the human voice.

Under the heading INTERFERENCE the phenomenon known as beats in sound has been discussed at some length. When two notes of nearly the same pitch are sounded together, a rise and fall in the intensity of the sound is heard, the number of maximum points in a second being equal to the difference of the frequencies. The ear is able to recognize this beating when the difference is less than 20; but when the difference of the frequencies is greater than 30 a new phenomenon presents itself. The difference of the frequencies becomes evident to the ear as a difference tone, whose frequency is this difference. Sound together, for example, the middle c and G upon an organ or a harmonium, the frequencies of which are on these tempered instruments very nearly as 2 to 3. (In the true accurately tuned fifth they would be exactly as these numbers.) At once the ear will hear a lower tone than either component, and the pitch of this tone will be an octave below the c, having a frequency equal to the difference of the frequencies of the c and G. This phenomenon was early recognized by organists, and is known as Tartini's beat. The obvious explanation was that it

was due to the coalescence of the interference beats when these were too numerous to be individually recognized and frequent enough to form a tone of definite pitch. Helmholtz showed, however, that although this explanation might apply when the individual notes were powerful, it did not contain the complete explanation. He found that the difference tone was not increased in intensity when a resonator tuned to the same pitch was applied to the ear. Thus the difference tone was to a large extent produced in the ear itself; and he showed that this could be explained dynamically as being due to the asymmetric character of the vibrating part of the ear when it is acted upon by the two vibrations from without. This explanation also accounted for the summation tone heard under certain circumstances a tone whose frequency is the sum of the frequencies of the component

notes.

The transmission of sound through the air depends on the elasticity and density of the air. Newton was the first to show that the speed of propagation should be equal to the square root of the ratio of the elastic force to the density. Using Boyle's law, he calculated what the speed should be, and obtained a value fully one-tenth less than the observed value. The discrepancy was cleared up by Laplace. Since sound is propagated by a succession of condensations and rarefactions in the air, and since a sudden compression causes a rise of temperature and a rarefaction a fall of temperature, it is obvious that Boyle's law, which holds for constant temperature, does not apply. The heating during compression and the cooling during expansion increase the resistance of the air to being compressed and rarefied, and consequently the elastic force applicable to this case will be higher in value than that used by Newton. When the correct value is used, the calculated value of the speed of sound agrees with the observed value-namely, about 1,100 feet per second. So rapidly do the alternations of pressure and density take place that there is no time for the heat developed in the condensed part to diffuse into the colder region of the neighboring rarefied part. The air, in fact, behaves very rigorously in an adiabatic manner. (See THERMODYNAMICS.) Stokes has shown that a very small loss or gain of heat by conduction or convection would quickly stifle any sound that was being propagated through the air. All elastic bodies can transmit waves of compression like the sound waves in air, and

in the case of fluids the rate of propagation depends on the same dynamic constants-namely, the resistance to compression and the density. The density of water is much greater than that of air; but on the other hand, water has a very much greater resistance to compression. Thus the velocity of the compressional wave in water is nearly five times the velocity of sound in air.

Elastic waves somewhat analogous to sound waves in air may also be transmitted through solids; and here again the speed depends upon a certain elastic constant and the density. This kind of motion must be distinguished from the body vibrations by which sounds are produced in such instruments as drums, tuning forks, cymbals, and bells. Homogeneous isotropic solids have two kinds of elasticity, and corresponding to these are two kinds of waves, each travelling with its own velocity. When these emerge at the surface of the solid, they may be continued through the air as audible waves of compression-that is, as sound waves. In this sense, and in this sense only, can we speak of solids conveying sound. Rayleigh has shown that solids may transmit a third kind of elastic wavenamely, a wave whose disturbance penetrates a very short distance below the surface. This also may obviously give rise to sound waves in air if the vertical motion is sufficiently great and sufficiently rapid. See EARTHQUAKES.

Being wave motion, sound is capable of reflection and refraction at the boundary of two media differing in density and elasticity. Echoes and the phenomena of whispering galleries are familiar illustrations of reflection. Sound may be refracted through a lens of carbonic acid gas; and under certain conditions of the atmosphere sound is bent upward into the higher regions of the air. This is due to change of temperature. A change of density at constant temperature is accompanied by a proportionate change in the resistance to compression, so that the speed of sound in air, being determined by the ratio of these two quantities, is the same at all densities provided the temperature is constant. Diffraction of sound may also be observed under suitable conditions, which have been lucidly described by Lord Rayleigh in his Royal Institution lecture of 1888. (See his collected Scientific Papers, vol. iii.) The phenomena cannot well be shown with ordinary sound waves, because of the length of the waves in comparison with the apertures through which the sound passes

Sound, The

or the objects which throw the sound shadows. By means of sensitive flames, which respond to aerial vibrations of frequencies so great as to be inaudible, Rayleigh was able to demonstrate the existence of diffraction phenomena. See ACOUSTICS. The most complete treatise on sound is that by Rayleigh (1894-6). Many remarkable discoveries are contained in Helmholtz's Sensations of Tone (Eng. trans., 1885). For a more elementary treatment, consult Thomson and Poynting's Text-book of Physics (1903).

Sound, The, strait connecting the Kattegat and the Baltic between Sweden and the island of Zeeland, Denmark. It is 30 m. from north to south, and between Helsingborg and Elsinore is only 3 m. wide.

Sounding. See LEAD, THE; NAVIGATION, PRACTICAL. Sounding Board. Properly, a surface of resonant material, usually wood, in the piano, violin, and other musical instruments, which transmits the string vibrations to the air, and thereby intensifies the sound.

The term is also popularly used for a reflector-a board placed behind or above a speaker or orchestra to strengthen the sound and to prevent echoes. An efficient reflector does not vibrate, thus differing from a true sounding board.

Sour-wood. A small tree (Oxydendrum arboreum) of the Southern and Middle States, belonging to the heath family. It has oval, sour-tasting leaves and numerous panicled racemes of cylindrical white flowers; it is also called sorrel

tree.

Sousa, JOHN PHILIP (1856), American bandmaster and composer, was born in Washington, D. C. He played the violin in the orchestra of Jacques Offenbach during the latter's American tour (1876). After experience in travelling companies, he became in 1880 leader of the U. S. Marine Corps Band. In 1892 he organized his own band, with which he earned fame in this country and in Europe. The spirit and swing of his music, especially of his marches, have made his compositions than two hundred in all-popular throughout the world. Among the best known are the Washington Post, Liberty Bell, and Stars and Stripes Forever. He has also written the music of several successful operettas, among them El Capitán, The Charlatan, The Bride Elect, and The Free Lance. His programmes contain, besides many American compositions, much classical and Wagnerian music, of which he has made excellent transcriptions for band

use.

more

He received the Royal Victorian medal, and was made an officer of the French Academy in 1901.

South, SIR JAMES (1785-1867), English astronomer, was born near

315

London. He was educated for the medical profession, but relinquished it and devoted himself entirely to astronomy. He was one of the founders of the Astronomical Society, and became its president in 1829.

South, ROBERT (1634-1716), English divine and pulpit orator, was born in Hackney, London. He was a fellow student with John Locke at Christ Church, Oxford, and after the Restoration he was appointed orator for the university. By his oration at the installation of Clarendon as chancellor, in 1661, he secured that statesman as his friend and patron, and made his reputation as one of the foremost formal orators in English history. He was appointed private chaplain to Clarendon, prebendary of Westminster (1663), canon of Christ Church (1670), and rector of Islip (1678). In 1693 he began a famous controversy on the Trinity with Sherlock, dean of St. Paul's. The best edition of his sermons is by W. G. T. Shedd, with a memoir. See Works (1823); Lake's Classic Preachers of the English Church.

South, University of the, an institution for the higher education of men at Sewanee, Tenn., founded in 1857 under the auspices of the Protestant Episcopal Church. The college confers the bachelor's degree in arts, civil engineering, and divinity, and the degrees of M.A., and C.E. Unconditioned members of the professional school and such academic students as have passed a certain number of examinations are formed into a body of gownsmen, distinguished by the academic dress and enjoying certain immunities and privileges. The university in 1909-10 had 291 students, 37 instructors, a library of 30.000 volumes, property valued at $750,000, an endowment of $300,000, and an income of $68,000.

South Africa, British. The British possessions in South Africa comprise Cape Colony, Natal, the Orange River Colony, the Transvaal, and the protectorates of Bechuanaland and Basutoland. See SOUTH AFRICAN UNION, and the articles on the separate colonies.

South Africa Company. RHODES, C. J.

South African Republic. TRANSVAAL.

See

See

South African Union (officially, THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA), is the federation of four British colonies in South Africa, dating from May 31, 1910. The territory, with some native territory, included for administrative purposes, is about 477,463 square miles, with a population, in 1904, of 5,317,604, of whom 1,117,015 are white, and 4,198,589 are of other races. The executive offices are at Pretoria (q.v.), but Parliament sits at Cape Town (q.v.). The chief ports are Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, and Port Natal.

South African Union

CLIMATE.-The climate is remarkably even, and has been described as genial, exhilarating, sunny, and dusty,' though violent dust-storms are infrequent. The average annual rainfall is about 23 inches. In the eastern part, monsoons (q.v.) are not uncommon; and when they recur for several seasons, they store water in lakes and rivers sufficient for several dry seasons. The moderate rainfall of 1909 and 1910 succeeded a dry period of about twenty years.

FORESTRY.-Large areas of forest reserves in the Cape Province and Natal are receiving scientific cultivation according to modern forestry methods. In the Cape forests, a certain area is left open for two years, and is then closed for about forty years, another section being opened in its place. The total forest acreage of the Cape Province is 400,000; that of Natal, 30,000, while the other provinces have little or no forest land.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.-Geological maps have been issued for 96,050 square miles in the Cape Province and the Transvaal. The work of the Survey is being rapidly extended.

AGRICULTURE.-South Africa's progress until very recently has

largely in the mining field; but the agricultural resources are beginning to be developed. The chief agricultural products are citrus, grain, maize, tea, sugar, wine, pineapples, oranges, and other fruits. The recent development of dry farming is to be noted. There has been great increase in the exportation of fruit since the adaptation of cold-storage systems; the number of boxes sent to England in 1910 was 204,119. Cotton raising is a new industry in which experiments were tried from American seed in 1910. The results were sufficiently encouraging to warrant the development of the industry. South Africa is said to be the finest maize-growing country in the world, owing to highly favorable climatic conditions

especially abundance of sunlight and a long sowing season. Maize is a most important dry-farming crop, since it will withstand the severest drought if cultivated carefully.

Ostrich farming was created and developed by the farmers of the Cape Province. The annual exports of feathers amount to over $10,000,000. The exportation of ostriches or ostrich eggs is forbidden by law. Successful creameries are in operation, and their number is increasing. Cattle, sheep, and horses are extensively raised.

MINERALS. The most important minerals worked in South Africa are gold, diamonds, silver, coal, tin, copper, lead, zinc, and asbestos. The value of the gold output for 1909 was $154,974,525; of diamonds, $36,986,085; of coal (chiefly from Natal and the Transvaal), $8,783,450. The gold indus

try of the Transvaal is constantly expanding. In 1909 it furnished nearly one-third of the world's supply. The output of the Witwatersrand alone (popularly known as the Rand) was about 95 per cent. of the yield of the province. In the Transvaal in June, 1909, there were 118 gold mines with 9,864 stamps and tube mills actually at workan increase of 743 over 1908-and 1,358 built for future use. In 1909, South Africa, including Rhodesia, produced over 35 per cent. of the world's gold supply; and new mines are being rapidly developed. The mineral output of the four colonies for the year 1909 is shown in the following table:

Gold.

pect of an increase in the proportion of white population. Immigration, to the encouragement of which both parties pledged themselves before the August election, has been largely dropped. But considered apart from political agitation, the general dependence on native labor greatly decreases the industrial demand for immigration. The natives have almost a monopoly of the unskilled labor and domestic service of the country, a share in which is demanded by the whites. Reserves exist within which only native labor is employed. Similar white reserves have been proposed. A general segregation of the black race, already partly ac

COMMERCE

Total.

AND INDUSTRY.Trade has greatly increased since 1909, when the royal assent was given to the Act of Union. For the six months ending June 30, 1910, the imports amounted to $79,524,595, an increase of $18,661,735 over the same period of 1909. Exports were $139,651,530, an increase of $17,830,730. The largest single item among the imports was machinery ($8,821,155), in which the trade with Germany is important. Gold was the largest article of export, its value being $77,673,705. For 1910, the imports are estimated at $170,000,000, of which 70 per cent. came from Great Britain and British Colonies.

LABOR AND THE COLOR PROBLEM. Unskilled labor is largely in the hands of natives. It has been estimated that there are about 700,000 adult native males in the Union. Some of these, however, work their own farms, and no natives work for more than six months of the year. About 375,000 natives are employed in the mines, but it has been found necessary to draw on Portuguese East Africa for native labor. Conditions of living and employment have been greatly improved in recent years. It is hoped that this improvement, with the additional native population made available by the Union, and some white labor, will go far to supply the increased demand of the present expanding trade.

The color problem in South Africa is of serious proportions. The natives have about four times the numerical strength of the whites while there is no immediate pros

complished in some labor communities, is one of the suggested methods of dealing with the color problem. The problem is complicated by the fact that some of the natives are rising into the ranks of skilled workmen, clerks, etc., and are thus entering into constantly closer competition with the whites.

RAILROADS. - The railroads, which are owned by the state, consisted at the establishment of the Union of three systems-viz., the Central South African Railways, and those of the Cape and Natal Governments-with about 7,500 miles of single track. The system includes the control of the harbors of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, and Durban. The capital expenditure (May, 1910) of the railroads was $375,000,000; of the harbors, $50,000,000. The gross earnings in 1909 were $51,000,000; the net earnings, $23,500,000. It was recently announced (1911) that on account of the large increase in the volume of traffic, the Union Government railroads have decided to enlarge their facilities by the immediate purchase of engines and rolling stock to the amount of $3,500,000.

The railroads are administered by the Minister of Railways, assisted by three commissioners. Under the Union, operation for profit has been abandoned, and the gross earnings are to be only so large as is necessary to pay expenses and interest on capital. A commission is now (1911) investigating the question of rates. The aim of the administration is the agricultural and industrial development of the inland provinces.

The gold of Johannesburg (q.v.) was the prize for which, up to the time of the Union, the provincial roads were anxiously competing. The first line to Johannesburg from the coast came from Cape Town (700 miles), and had a monopoly of the trade until the completion in 1894 of the Natal line, between Johannesburg and Durbar (485 miles), considerably shortened the distance. The Natal line was in its turn largely superseded by the Delagoa Bay route, opened in 1894, which further reduced the distance to 396 miles. At the time of the Union (1910), 70 per cent. of the Transvaal traffic was carried vid Delagoa Bay. Since the railroads were a large source of income to the governments, several conferences were held to adjust the traffic question, but without result. In consequence of pressure brought to bear on the National Convention of 1908, 30 per cent. of the traffic was guaranteed to Durbar, and 15 per cent. to Cape Town. It has been found difficult, however, to maintain these arbitrary apportion

ments.

LANGUAGE.-English and Dutch receive official recognition, and public instruction is given in both languages. But English is the language of commerce and of general business. Several corrupt forms of Dutch are already spoken, and it is thought that the language will go out of common use in three or four generations.

EDUCATION.-Higher education is under control of the Union; all other education is governed by the provincial councils. This division of authority, the result of compromise in the Convention, and prescribed for five years, hinders the development of a co-ordinated educational system. There are nine institutions of collegiate rank in the Union, including the South African College in Cape Town, Victoria College in Stellenbosch, Rhodes College in Grahamstown, Transvaal University College in Pretoria, and the South African School of Mines in Johannesburg. The school attendance in the four provinces in 1910 was 187,913.

GOVERNMENT.-The Union follows somewhat closely the Canadian model; i.e., specific powers are given the colonies, which are called provinces, but all power not specifically granted remains in the general government. The executive department consists of the Governor-General, with a salary of $50,000, advised by an Executive Council of not more than ten members, appointed by him and serving during his pleasure. The control and administration of matters pertaining to natives and Asiatics is vested in the Governor-General in Council. He also appoints the Judges of the Supreme Court, who are removable only for misconduct or incapacity. From the Supreme