South Dakota State College

Sioux Falls, the first industrial settlement, was established; and other settlements in the eastern part of the territory followed the chartering of the Dakota Land Company during the same year.

Dakota Territory, as organized on March 2, 1861, had originally formed part of Louisiana Territory in 1804-changed to Missouri Territory in 1812. The part east of the Missouri had been successively included in Michigan Territory in 1834, Wisconsin in 1836, Iowa in 1838, and Minnesota in 1849; and the part west of the Missouri in Nebraska Territory in 1854. Dakota Territory later included large parts of Montana and Wyoming, which were set off in 1863 when the Territory of Idaho was formed.

In 1862 the Territorial capital was located at Yankton, but in 1883 it was removed to Bismarck. The destruction of Sioux Falls by the Indians and the building of Fort Dakota marked the years 1862 and 1865, respectively.

The construction of the railroads, begun in 1872, with the discovery of gold by General Custer in 1874, and the opening of the Deadwood and Whitewood mines in 1875, hastened the development of the Black Hills region. In 1876 the Indians of that region ceded their lands to the government, and Deadwood was laid out.

In 1883, at a convention held in Sioux Falls, a constitution was drawn up, and a petition for Statehood was presented to Congress. The next year Congress passed a bill providing for the admission of the portion south of the parallel of 46° as South Dakota, and the organization of the portion north of that parallel as the Territory of Lincoln; but the provisions of the bill were not carried out. In 1889 an enabling act was passed, providing for the division of the Territory on the line of the seventh standard parallel,' and the admission of the States of North and South Dakota. Statehood by South Dakota was attained on Nov. 3, 1889.

The opening to settlement of 9,000,000 acres of Sioux land in 1890 was the occasion for a notable land rush. The smaller tract of the Sisseton Indians was opened in 1892, and the Rosebud Reservation in 1904.

In national elections South Dakota has been Republican, except in 1896, when a coalition of the Populists and Democrats won, and in 1912, when Theodore Roosevelt carried it for the new Progressive Party. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult VOL. XI.-Mar. '13

333

Blackburn's Historical Sketch of North and South Dakota; Smith and Young's History and Civil Government of South Dakota; Robinson's Compendium of Information Relating to South Dakota (1908); Johnson's South Dakota: A Republic of Friends (1911); Ransom's Sunshine State (1912).

South Dakota State College of Agricultural and Mechanic Arts, a co-educational institution at Brookings, S. D., founded in 1884. It received a grant of 160,000 acres of public land under the Act of 1862. The departments of instruction include Graduate Courses, General Science, Agriculture, Home Economics, Engineering, Pharmacy, and Music, Preparatory Classes, and a secondary School of Agriculture. The College owns 560 acres, of which 400 acres are under cultivation. In 1912 there were 663 students, 60 instructors, and a library containing 12,500 volumes. The endowment funds amounted to $136,738; the value of buildings and grounds was $365,000; the total value of the property was $2,196,738; and the total income was $232,508.

South Dakota, University of, a co-educational State institution at Vermilion, S. D., incorporated in 1863, and organized in 1882. It is controlled and supported wholly by the State, and has an endowment of 86,000 acres of land granted by the Federal Government. The University consists of the Colleges of Arts and Sciences (including education and graduate courses), Law, Music, Medicine, and Engineering. In addition, the University aims to assist in the material development of the State by scientific investigation and field work. The students in 1911 numbered 425, the instructors 54, and the library contained 18,000 volumes. Buildings and grounds were valued at $500,000, and the total income was $139,810.

Southdown, a breed of sheep. See SHEEP.

Southeastern Alps, the most easterly division of the Alps, includes the mountains rising south of the Drave valley (separating them from the central Tyrolese Alps) and east of the Piave valley (separating them from the Dolomites). Herein three distinct groups are usually distinguished. East of the Dolomites rise (1) the Carnic Alps, which culminate in Kellerwand (9,105 ft.), though their best-known summit is Paralba (8,830 ft.); while the principal pass is the Monte Croce or Plöcken Pass (4,462 ft.). Separated from the Carnic Alps by the Pon

Southern Baptist Seminary

tebba line of the Railway over the Saifnitz or Pontebba Pass (2,615 ft.), from Tarvis to Udine, rise to the east (2) the Julic Alps, which culminate in the Terglou or Triglav (9,395 ft.), and the Montasio (9,039 ft.), their best-known pass being the Predil (3,813 ft.), traversed by a carriage road from Tarvis to Görz. To the northeast of the Julic Alps, and separated from them by the Save valley, (3) the Karawanken Alps rise between that valley and the Drave. See ALPS.

Southend -on- Sea, municipality, borough, and watering place, Essex, England, at the mouth of the Thames; 40 miles east of London, There are two fine esplanades and a pier (over 14 miles long). Among public buildings are the Kursaal, smallpox hospital, workmen's dwellings, municipal buildings, free library, and technical schools. Recreation grounds include a marine park and Chalkwell Hall Park. An improvement scheme for the sea front is being carried out (1913) at an estimated cost of $337,500. Westcliff is a residential suburb. A Cluniac priory was founded here in the time of Henry II. The town is mainly of recent growth, and is much frequented by Londoners. Pop. (1901) 28,857; (1911) 62,723.

Southern Alps, a chain of snow-clad mountains with an average height of 8,000 feet, and a snow line of 7,500 feet, forming the backbone of the South Island of New Zealand, running parallel with and close to the west coast for about 100 miles, and thrusting many long spurs eastward. Their culminating point is Mount Cook (12,349 ft.), and several others exceed 10,000 feet. This region was first explored by Sir Julius von Haast in 1862. The range is crossed by three low passes-Harper's Pass; Arthur's Pass (3,000 ft.), over which runs the road from Christchurch to Hokitika, and over which the Midland Railway is constructed; and Haast Pass (1,716 ft.).

Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, a divinity school of the Baptist Church at Louisville, Ky., established at Greenville, S. C., in 1859. It was closed during the Civil War, and was removed to Louisville in 1877. Courses are offered for persons without collegiate training as well as for college graduates. Opportunity is also offered for graduate work leading to the degree of doctor of theology, and courses are provided for training women missionaries. In 1912 the seminary had 313 students, 10 instructors, and a library of 23,500 volumes. There

was an endowment of $800,000, and an income of $50,000; while the buildings and grounds were valued at $350,000.

Southern California, University of, a co-educational institution under Methodist control at Los Angeles, founded in 1880. It includes the Colleges of Liberal Arts, Physicians and Surgeons, Pharmacy, Dentistry, Law, Music, Oratory, Theology, and Fine Arts; and directs the Marine Biological Station at Venice, Cal. In 1912 the students numbered 2,107, and the instructors 226; while the library contained 18,000 volumes. The University had an endowment of $460,000, an income of $90,000, and buildings and grounds worth $400,000.

Southern Cross. See CRUX. Southerne, THOMAS (16601746), English dramatist, was born in Oxmantown, near Dublin. In 1682 was produced his play, The Loyal Brother, or the Persian Prince. His best plays were tragedies, brought out after the Revolution-The Fatal Marriage (1694), and Oroonoko (1696).

Southern Education Board, a body organized in 1901, as an outcome of the fourth Conference for Education in the South at Winston-Salem, N. C., to promote the development of State public school systems in the Southern States. Co-operation with similar bodies, such as the General Education Board and the Peabody and Slater Funds, is secured by mutual representation in the membership. The Southern Board meets twice yearly. Its officers are: president, Robert C. Ogden; treasurer, George Foster Peabody; executive secretary, Wickliffe Rose.

Under the impetus of the Board's efforts in the first five years of its existence, the following increases occurred in six of the Southern States: expenditure for public education, 69 per cent.; amount raised for school purposes from local taxation, 78 per cent.; value of school property, 51 per cent.; and expenditure for equipment, 164 per cent. The field of its influence along similar lines has since been greatly extended; and it has also been an important factor throughout the South in the development of industrial and highschool education, and the training of teachers; in the improvement of supervision, progress in rural schools, and the founding and maintenance of school-improvement leagues. Consult Dickerman's Educational Progress in the South (1908); U. S. Commissioner of Education's Reports.

VOL. XI.-Mar, '13

Southern (or Cold) Lakes of New Zealand, twelve large and numerous smaller lakes of glacial origin in the southwest of South Island. Tekapo (15 m. by 3 m.), Pukaki (10 m. by 4 m.), and Ohau (12 m. by 21⁄2m.) are in Canterbury, and drained by the Waitaki. The others are all in Otago. Hawea (19 m. by 3 m.), Wanaka (35 m. by 1-3 m.), and Wakatipu (50 m. by 1-3 m.) are drained by the Clutha; Te Anau (40 m. by 1-6 m.), Manapouri (50 sq. m.), and Monowai by the Waiau. The southernmost group consists of Pouteriteri, Hakapoua, and Hauroto.

Southern Nigeria. See NI

GERIA.

Southern Rhodesia. See RнO

DESIA.

Southern University, a coeducational institution under the control of the Methodist Church at Greensboro, Ala., founded in 1856. It offers classical and scientific courses leading to the bachelor's degree in arts and science, and graduate courses leading to the master's degree. In 1911 the institution had 142 students, 10 instructors, and a library of 8,000 volumes. Its endowment funds amounted to $75,000, its income to $18,000, and the value of the buildings and grounds to $175,000.

Southernwood, OLD MAN, LAD'S LOVE, or MAIDEN'S RUIN (Artemisia abrotanum), is an old garden plant, now mainly grown for the fragrance of its leaves, but formerly valued for its real or supposed medicinal qualities.

Southey, ROBERT (1774-1843), English man of letters, was born in Bristol. He entered Oxford a sympathizer with the French Revolution, and wrote Joan of Arc (1793), an epic. In June, 1794, he met Coleridge, and the two, whose lives were thenceforth linked, dreamed of emigrating to the United States, and founding on the banks of the Susquehanna a communistic settlement. To raise money for this purpose they both lectured in Bristol. Cottle, a publisher of the town, who had already published for Southey and his friend Edmund Seward a small volume of verse, offered to bring out his Joan of Arc. But circumstances dashed the dream of 'pantisocracy.'

In 1797 Southey secretly married Edith Fricker; but shortly afterward an uncle (the Rev. Herbert Hill, chaplain to the British factory at Lisbon) constrained him to go out to Portugal (1795). On his return, in the following year, Joan was published; and he soon settled down near Norwich to verse making, compiling, translating, and re

Greta Hall, Keswick. On the proceeds of articles in the Quarterly Review, book making, an annuity from Wynn, replaced after 1807 by a government pension, augmented in 1813 by the salary of poet laureate, and in 1835 by a pension of £300, which Peel got for him when he declined a baronetcy, Southey supported for a generation not only his own family, but Coleridge's wife and children. Roderick

(1826) completed the tale of his epics, monuments of respectable craftsmanship, from which the dust is rarely blown. His first wife died in 1837, and two years afterward he married Caroline Bowles. But his mind was already giving way, and he died on March 21, 1843.

His History of Brazil (1810-19) is not read, and his History of the Peninsular War (1823-32) was superseded by Napier's. His best biographies are the Life of Nelson (1813) and the Life of Wesley (1820). He wrote also a Life of Cowper (1833-37), translations of Amadis (1803), and The Cid (1808), Espriella's Letters (1807). pseudo-Spanish sketches of England, and The Doctor (1834-7), a medley of aphorisms, anecdotes, and humor. Southey is recognized as a classic prose writer. He was a capable

South Downs

biographer, a second-rate essayist, and a poet who rarely rose to distinction. His Poetical Works appeared (1837-8), Lives of the Admirals (1833-40), and Letters (1849-50). See Dowden's Southey in English Men of Letters (1879), new ed. (1895); and Dennis's Southey: Story of His Life (1887).

South Downs. See Downs.

South Foreland, on the coast of Kent, the nearest point of England to the coast of France. Off it an important naval battle was fought on Aug, 24, 1217. Eustace the monk, in the service of Louis of France, left Calais in order to attempt a landing in the mouth of the Thames. Hubert

de Burgh, justiciary and governor of Dover Castle, intercepted him, and the French were completely defeated, only fifteen ships out of eighty escaping.

Southfork, bor., Cambria co., Pa., 7 m. E.N.E. of Johnstown, on the Conemaugh R., and on the 'Pa. R. R. It has a brick factory and planing-mill, but the leading industry is the mining of bituminous coal, which abounds in this region. The entire lower part of the borough was destroyed by the flood which overwhelmed Johnstown. The breaking of the Southfork dam, about a mile above Southfork, was the cause of this disaster. Large coal yards of the Pa. R. R. now occupy the bed of the former lake which the dam confined. The place was first settled in 1865 and incorporated in 1884. Pop. (1910) 4,592.

South Fork of the Platte, a river which rises in Colorado, near Mt. Lincoln, crosses the South Park, and continues, in a general N.E. and N. course to Denver and Evans, then turning

E., enters Nebraska, where it joins the N. Fork after a course of 550 m.

South Framingham. See FRAMINGHAM.

South Glens Falls, vil., Saratoga co., N. Y., opposite Glens Falls, on the Hudson R. at the falls, and on the Del. and Hud. and the Hud. Val. R. Rs. It is

a

manufacturing centre, with paper and lumber mills and lime kilns. Paper is supplied in con

siderable quantities to the New York newspapers. Cooper's Cave' is situated in

South Glens Falls.

The famous

The village

was settled in 1840 and incorporated in 1895. Pop. (1910)

2,247.

South Hadley, tn., Hampshire Co., Mass., 4 m. N. of Holyoke, and about 2 m. E. of the Connecticut R. It is the seat of Mount Holyoke College (q.v.). Paper, woollen goods, bricks, etc., are manufactured. The town has

VOL. XI.-22

335

two public libraries. The scenery of the region is very beautiful. Features of special interest are Mount Tom and Mount Holyoke and the great dam built across the river. The town was settled in 1721 and incorporated in 1753. Pop. (1910) 4.894.

South Haven, city, Van Buren co., Mich., 50 m. s.w. of Grand Rapids, on the shore of L. Michigan, and on the Pere Marq. and the Mich. Cent. R. Rs. It is a summer resort and has manufactures of pianos, lumber, crates, flour, canned fruit, etc. It is a shipping point for fruit, which is extensively raised the vicinity. The city has a public The water-works and library. electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the municipality. It was settled in 1833, incorporated as a village in 1869, and chartered as a city in Pop. (1910) 3,577.

in

1902.

South Holland. See HOLLAND, SOUTH.

Southington, bor., Hartford co., Conn., 15 m. N. of New Haven, on the N. H. and Northampton R. R. Various kinds of hardware are manufactured. It was settled about 1697. The town was incorporated in 1779 and the borough in 1889. Pop. (1910) 3,714.

South Island. ZEALAND.

See NEW

South MacAlester, city, Okla., cap. of the Choctaw Nation, 47 m. S.S.E. of Okmulgee, Creek Nation, on the Chi., Rock I. and Pac. and the Mo., Kan. and Tex. R. Rs. Coal-mining is the chief industry, there being extensive deposits in the district. The city has two large foundries and machine shops, a cotton compress, two pressed brick plants, a flour mill, bottling works, a mattress factory, a macaroni factory, cigar factory, tannery, etc. The first settler on this site arrived about 1885. The city was incorporated in 1899. In 1906 the town of MacAlester was annexed and its name was taken for the city. Pop. (1900) 3,479; (1910) 12,

Southport

South Norwalk, city, Fairfield co., Conn., 40 m. N.E. of New York, on Long Island Sound, at the mouth of the Norwalk R., on the N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R. It has important manufactures, including those of hardware, stoves, corsets, silk, woollen goods, gasocompressors, line engines, air

boats, earthen ware, paper boxes, and shoes. It has a good harbor, and is finely situated, overlooking the Sound. The water-works and electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the municipality. The place was separated from Norwalk in 1870. Pop. (1910) 8,968.

South Omaha, city, Douglas co., Neb., on the Missouri R.. adjoining Omaha, and on the Chi., Rock I. and Pac., the U. Pac., the Chi., Burl. and Quin. and other R. Rs. The chief industry is meat-packing, several large firms having establishments here. The census of manufactures in 1905 returned 41 industrial establishments, with $20,564,155 capital, and an output valued at $67,415,177. The capital invested in the meat-packing industry was $19,690,287, and the products amounted to $65,530,935. There are, also, grain elevators, chemical works, a tannery for furs and robes, and manufactories of ammunition, carriages and wagons, cooperage, malt liquors, patent medicines and compounds, soap, brick, shirts, overalls, etc. The more important institutions include the city hospital and the Carnegie Library. The place was settled in 1882 and incorporated four years later. Pop. (1900) 26.001; (1910) 26,259.

South Orange, vil., Essex cc. N. J., 4 m. w. of Newark, on the D., L. and W. R. R. It is a residential place, most of the inhabitants being New York business men, and is one of the most beautiful localities in the neighborhood of New York. It is the seat of Seton Hall College (R. C.) and has a fine public library. Essex County Park, of 300 acres, is situated upon Orange Mountain, which forms the N.W. boundary of the village, and which affords an extensive view. The place was settled about 1670. Pop. (1910) 6,014.

South Park, a table land in the central part of Colorado, surrounded by rugged mountains. Alt. 9,000 ft. It is fertile and is well watered, being traversed by the South Fork of the Platte and other streams. Its area is 2,000 sq. m. On the N., lofty mountains separate it from Middle Park.

South Pole. See ANTARCTIC OCEAN.

Southport, munic. bor. and watering-place, Lancashire, England. 18 m. N. of Liverpool; it has

a handsome esplanade and marine drive. Marine park and lake (44 ac.) front the shore. Hesketh Park is prettily laid out at the northern end of the town; there are botanic gardens, winter garden and zoological park. The public buildings include

town hall, Cambridge Hall, Atkinson Art Gallery and Free Library, and market hall, and there are several hydropathic establishments. Birkdale is a southern residential suburb. Pop. (1911) 51,650.

South Portland, city, Cumberland co., Me., on the inner harbor of Portland, opposite that city, with which it is connected by ferry. It is a residential city and summer resort. The chief industrial establishments are boatbuilding yards, flour mills, and oil and lead works. The more important institutions include the Maine School for Boys and the City Home. Features of interest are Cape Cottage, a picturesque shore resort, Rigby Park, where the state fair is held, and which has a fine trotting track, and Forts Preble and Williams, each with two companies of coast artillery. The city was chartered in 1899, before which it was part of Cape Elizabeth. Pop. (1910) 7,471.

South River, bor., Middlesex co., N. J., 5 m. S.E. of New Brunswick, on the South R., and on the Raritan R. R. R. It has brick yards, conduit works, and manufactures of handkerchiefs, embroidery, shirts, etc. Clay and moulding sands are abundant in the district. The place was first incorporated in 1871 and chartered as a borough in 1898. Pop. (1910) 4,472.

South Saint Paul, city, Dakota co., Minn., 5 m. from Saint Paul, on the Mississippi R., and on the Chi. Gt. W. and the Chi., Rock I. and Pac. R. Rs. It is of industrial importance as a packing centre. Large stock yards are situated here. Malt, plaster, and cement are manufactured. The packing-houses and allied interests employ 2,000 hands. The river is very picturesque at this point, having high bluffs opposite the city. The place was settled about 1880 and incorporated in 1887. Pop. (1910) 4,510.

Southsea, tn., Hants, England, forming part of Portsmouth, immediately s. of Landport. It is a residential suburb and watering-place, and has an esplanade adorned with many naval memorials.

South Sea Scheme, or, as it is often named, the 'SOUTH SEA BUBBLE,' arose out of Lord Treasurer Harley's desire to get taken up the large floating debt which the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-13) had cre

ated. The Company of Merchants of Great Britain was granted exclusive rights of trading on the east and west coasts of S. America, and all lands it might discover within three hundred leagues from the shore were to be held by the company under the crown. The peace of Utrecht (1713) transferred to England the Assiento privilege of carrying negroes to Spanish America, and this privilege was handed over to the company. In 1714, by the further transformation of government debt, the capital stock was increased to £10,000,000; and in 1719 the directors of the company proposed to absorb the whole national debt and pay 5 per cent. interest for seven years and 4 per cent. thereafter. They offered for this privilege £7,567,000. The company seems to have done little legitimate trading. The public, however, misled by the countenance and support which the government gave to the company, formed extravagant ideas of the possible value of the South Sea trade, and speculation carried the stock to £1,000 for every £100 subscribed. Then all sorts of companies were floated, and men invested blindly in the most ridiculous projects, such as proposals to import asses from Spain and to extract silver from sea-water. The whole of England seemed to have gone mad, save only Walpole. He had always opposed this South Sea scheme, and to him the nation turned to restore the public credit and to find the best way out of the mess. Walpole dealt leniently with the directors, and remitted the obligations of the company to the public, thus favoring the ordinary stockholder. The South Sea Company was not dissolved, but it carried on a legitimate business thereafter. It engaged in the whale fishery with no great success, and trafficked in negro slaves. Although after 1750 it ceased to be a trading company, it was not till 1807 that it was deprived of its exclusive trading privileges in the South Seas. See Mackay's Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions (1852), and Coxe's Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole (1802).

South Shields. See SHIELDS. South Shetlands, group of mountainous islands in the Antarctic Ocean, about 600 m. s. of Cape Horn. They are twelve in number Clarence, George I., Livingstone, Deception, Smith being the chief-and cover an area of 880 sq. m.

and

dral of the diocese of Southwark (constituted 1905), belonged to the 11th-century priory of St. Mary Overy. It was rebuilt 13th century. Its monuments include one to the poet Gower, buried here. Among other noteworthy buildings are Spurgeon's Tabernacle, St. George's Church, Roman Catholic cathedral, Guy's Hospital, Hop Exchange, Bethlehem Hospital, and the Surrey and Kennington theatres. The site of Shakespeare's Globe Theatre is now occupied by a brewery. Pop. (1911) 191,951.

Southwell, ROBERT (c. 156195), English poet and Jesuit spy, was born probably at Horsham, Norfolk, and admitted a Jesuit in 1578. In 1586 he went to England with Father Henry Garnet, and passed as a Protestant under the name of Cotton. In 1592 he was caught, and was taken to prison and to torture, and in 1595 he was hung for treason. He left a good deal of prose and verse, of which the lines The Burning Babe are best known. His Col lected Poems were edited by A. B. Grosart (1872), and Collected Prose by W. J. Walter (1828).

Southwestern Baptist University. A coeducational institu tion at Jackson, Tenn., established as Union University at Murfreesboro in 1845, and transferred to the present location in 1874. It comprises a college of liberal arts, with partially elective courses leading to the B.A. and B.S. degrecs, a theological school, and an academy, with a total registration in 1905 of 300 students and 20 instructors. The institution has a library of 8,000 volumes, an endowment of $100,000, and an income of $12,000.

South Williamsport, bor., Lycoming co., Pa., opposite Williamsport, on the Susquehanna R., and on the Pa. R. R. It has a furniture factory, an iron and cut nail mill, machine shop, etc. The place was settled in 1825 and incorporated in 1886. Pop. (1910) 3,734.

Southworth, EMMA DOROTHY ELIZA (NEVITTE) (1819-99), American novelist, born in Washington, D. C. Her first novel, Retribution (1849), was published in the National Era, and she wrote many other works of fiction, dealing mostly with social conditions in the South. Her collected works were published in 1872.

Souvestre, EMILE (1806-54), French littérateur, born at Morlaix, settled at Paris (1836), where his Breton novels won him fame. Among these are Les Derniers Bretons (1835-7), Pierre et Jean (1842), Foyer Breton (1844), Scènes de la Chouannerie (1852) and Chroniques de la Mer (1853). His best book is, however, Un Philo

Souza-Botelho

sophe sous les Toits (1850). He also wrote many plays and farces, and published Caseries Historiques et Littéraires vols. 1854).

Souza - Botelho, ADÈLE MARIE EMILIE FILLEUL, MARQUISE DE (1761-1836), French novelist, born at Paris, married (1784) Count de Flahaut, and after he was guillotined (1793) took refuge in England. There she wrote Adèle de Sénanges (1794), a domestic novel. She charmed Napoleon by her wit, knew and inspired Louis Philippe, and at Talleyrand's met her Second husband (1802), the Portuguese minister at Paris, Marquis de Souza-Botelho. In 1808 appeared Eugène de Rothelin, usually esteemed her best book, a picture of 18th-century aristocratic society, distinguished by refinement of style. Some of her other books are Charles et Marie (1802), English scenes; Comtesse de Fargy (1823), convent life; Eugénie et Mathilde (1811), exile; Emilie et Alphonse (1799); and Mademoiselle de Tournon (1820). Her Œuvres Complètes appeared in 6 vols. (1811-22), and Euvres Choisies, with notice (1840-5).

Sovereign. (1.) One who exer

cises supreme control or dominion, but generally applied only to the hereditary rulers of states e.g. king, emperor, czar. (2.) A British gold coin worth one pound sterling, or $4.863, first issued by Henry VII., and which continued to be issued till the

time of James I. It was revived by George III., and is still issued.

of a

provost With

Grotius,

SOV

ог

Sovereignty. During the middle. ages the word ereign' and its compounds were simply equivalent to 'head 'chief.' It was, of course, most frequently applied to the king as the head of the state; but it was also used to describe the bishop of a diocese, the abbot monastery, and even the or master of a college. the political speculators of the 16th and 17th centuries, however, especially with Bodin, Hobbes, and Filmer, the term was used to signify that absolute freedom from external control, combined with that absolute power over its own members, which the revolt against the mediæval doctrine of the Holy Roman Empire led the modern school of thinkers to attribute to every independent state. Sovereignty became an abstraction, used to signify that totality of independence and power which may be vested in a king, or in a king and parliament, or in an assembly alone. champion and The great popularizer of this view in England was the jurist John Austin (A Plea for

Thus

337

the Constitution, 1859). Not only did he labor to prove that every act of political power in the United Kingdom (he does not seem to have considered the case of the colonies) was the act, direct or indirect, of the crown, lords, and commons, or, as he subsequently modified it, of the crown, lords, and electors; but he asserted, in spite of manifest evidence to the contrary, that a person or body of persons invested with similar powers must necessarily exist in every organized political community. The first serious check which this view met with was from the advocates of the new historical method of legal and political study, prominent among whom was Sir Henry Maine, whose brilliant book on Ancient Law was published in 1861. Somewhat staggered by his attack, the Austinian school of jurists fell back on the compromise that, whatever may have been the case in rudimentary stages of development, the Austinian doctrine was true of all civilized communities. Even this claim has, however, been powerfully resisted by recent writers, conspicuously by Professor Dicey, who points out that many of the most advanced modern political communities have in practice rejected the doctrine of sovereignty as Austin preached it. The truth of the matter appears to be this, that there have from time to time existed certain political communities in which the acts of a given person or body of persons could not be legally questioned by any regularly constituted authority, Two coninternal or external.

spicuous examples are the empire of the Russias, in which the ukase of the czar cannot be questioned before any tribunal; and the British empire, in which a formally enacted statute of the crown in Parliament enjoys a similar immunity. Of course there is always the sacred right of revolt'; but this is not a legal restriction. Of these and similar communities Austin's doctrine is only approximately true. One of the most conspicuous features of the many written constitutions' which sprang into life during the 19th century is the careful restriction placed by them on the powers not merely of the monarch or head of the state, but on the parliament or other legislative body. These restrictions are legal; they can be pleaded before regularly constituted tribunals. Their existence is a complete answer to the theory of sovereignty as understood by Austin. This is the case even in so-called unitary' constitutions, such as those of France and Belgium. It is still

Sowerby

more true of Federal constitutions, such as those of the United States and of Germany, by which political power is elaborately partitioned out among various coordinate and independent authorities. The writers of the Austinian school have endeavored to rebut this obvious truth by arguing that the body with whom lies the power of amending the constitution is in such case the real sovereign body. This argument is a shade stronger than that of Blackstone, who asserts that sovereign power necessarily belongs to that body in the state which has power to enact laws, apparently quite regardless of what laws it has power to enact. But even the Austinian argument reveals the weakness of the doctrine which it is quoted to support. Austin's sovereign' is an active, constantly watchful, and vigilant power, from which proceeds every political act-legislative, executive, judicial. The constitution-amending power of the written constitution is usually a very elaborately formed body, apparently devised in such a manner as to present the most extreme possible difficulty in calling it into action. Such a power may be a sovereign in posse; and to such a sovereign it has been proposed to apply the epithet of 'political,' while the sovereign power as ordinarily understood is to be known as 'legal.' But to make such a distinction is to destroy the whole point of Austin's theory. As a matter of fact, the framers of the written constitutions have usually aimed at preventing the exercise of unlimited power by any person or body of persons. See STATES' RIGHTS.

Sower (or SAUR), CHRISTOPHER (1693-1758), American printer and publisher, born at Laasphe, Germany. An almanac which he began to publish in German at Germantown, Pa., in 1738, was continued by his relatives until 1798. He established a quarterly magazine, Der Hoch-Deutsch Pensylvanische Geschichte-Schreiber, in 1739, and in 1 743 published an edition of Luther's translation of the Bible, the first copy of the book (excepting Eliot's Indian Bible) to be printed in America.

Sowerby, JAMES (1757-1822), English scientist and artist, was born in London. At first he was a teacher of drawing and painting, and having studied botany, he was employed to execute plates for the Botanical Magazine, and thereafter devoted himself to colored illustrations of botanical, zoological, and other scientific subjects. He published English Botany (1790-1814). with 2,592 Colored colored plates; Figures of English Fungi (17971815); The Mineral Conchology