similar institutions in other countries. The Census of the United States, which is acknowledged to be the most complete and elaborate enumeration and analysis of population, production, manufactures and transportation prepared by any government, is taken decennially, and now sup plemented by a quinquennial This census of manufactures. work is conducted by a corps of trained experts continuously employed for this purpose, aided by a clerical force of several thousand persons during the years in which the chief census work is performed, much of the tabulation and calculation being performed by electrically operated machinery, which adds greatly to the detail in which the work is presented. The census of manufactures shows the capital invested, the number of persons employed, the wages paid, and the value of the product of each of the principal articles classed as manufactures, by states and cities and in total, and is the only record of the production of manufactures made by any nation. The statistical work of the Bureau of Labor is especially devoted to the making of frequent records of wages in the various occupations, and comparisons with wages in other countries, and to a continuous record of prices of principal articles of daily require ment. The statistical work of the Department of Agriculture includes estimates of crop conditions and production of leading articles, the value of crops, farm prices of the principal articles, records of rainfall, and other statistical statements bearing upon agricultural production. See Mayo Smith's Statistics and Economics (1886) and Statistics and Sociology (1894), Keynes's Scope and Method of Political Economy (1891), Bowley's Statistics (1902), and Mulhall's Dict. of Statistics (4th ed. 1899). Statius, PUBLIUS PAPINIUS (c. 45-98 A.D.), Roman epic poet, patronized by Domitian. He is said to have retired to Naples and to have died there. Of his works there are extant Thebais, an epic poem on the War of the Seven against Thebes; Achilleis, an incomplete work on Achilles; and Silva, thirty-two poems on various subjects. Statius is a poet of learning and art, not of inspiration; his style is brilliant and elaborate, even to obscurity; his versification is correct, though he lacks all the higher qualities of poetry; and his epics, though famous in their day, are tedious to modern readers. Silva are more interesting. Editions: Text, by Lemaire (1825 The 30), and by Garrod (1906); Thebais, by Kohlmann (1844); Achilleis, by Kohlmann (1879); Silve, by Baehrens (1876); English verse trans. of Thebias by Lewis (1773); bk. i. by Pope. Statuary. See SCULPTURE. Statute of Frauds. See FRAUDS, STATUTE OF. Statutes. Legislative enactments, declaratory of existing common law, prescribing new principles of law, or otherwise expressing the legislative will, in the form necessary to make them authoritative. With reference to their application they are classed as public or general, private, and local. Public or general statutes are those which affect the whole community; private statutes affect only an individual, or several persons; local statutes affect a limited locality, as a county or a municipality. The formalities connected with the enactment of a statute include: the favorable vote of a majority of all the members, or a majority vote of a quorum of members, of a properly constituted legislative body, after a proper introduction and presentation, usually by three readings on different days, etc.; the enrolment of the bill upon the legislative journal; authentication by the presiding officers; and usually the approval of the chief executive. The constitutions of most states require the legislative body to send a bill to the governor for his approval or veto, after its passage and authentication by the signatures of the presiding officers of both houses. If the governor signs the bill, it becomes a law; if he vetoes it, that is, sends it back with his objections, it must usually be passed again by a greater majority of the members than is ordinarily required in order to become a law. There is no absolute power in the executive to prevent the legislature from enacting a statute. If the chief executive does not sign or veto a bill, the constitutions of most states provide that it shall become a law, after the lapse of a certain number of days, unless meanwhile the legislature adjourns sine die, in which case it is of no effect. In most states a statute must have a descriptive title. A statute usu ally contains a clause fixing the time when it shall take effect. It will ordinarily take effect when signed by the governor, or after the lapse of the proper number of days in case of his failure to act; or after it has again passed both houses in case it is vetoed by the governor; or on the date fixed in the statute itself. A statute may be made retrospective in its operation by its terms. If it applies to civil matters it must not interfere with vested rights, and if penal it comes within the inhibition against ex post facto laws found in most constitutions. Most state constitutions provide that a statute shall have only one subject or object. This is to avoid confusion. Punctuation is generally held not to constitute a part of a statute, although it is sometimes considered in order to arrive at its meaning. English statutes for merly were not punctuated at all. A statute which contravenes any of the provisions of the constitu tion of the state or United States is invalid. A statute may be mandatory, that is, of such a nature as to render void any act done contrary to its provisions; directory, in that it prescribes the manner in which acts may be done, or pro ceedings conducted; permissive, Pora in that it confers rights or privi leges upon those who care to take advantage of it, as to form a vol unteer fire company or cor) tion; or prohibitory or penaf, defining and prescribing penalties for crimes and misdemeanors. Where a statute is contrary to the common law it supersedes the latter, but only in so far as it is inconsistent. The construction and interpretation of statutes is a function of the courts. In some states there are statutory construction acts, which prescribe certain rules of construction. The ordinary meaning of words is followed where possible, unless it is clear that words or phrases are employed in a technical sense. The courts will not consider the opinions of the legislators who enacted a statute, but may look to the legislative journal in some cases. A bill cannot generally be amended during its passage in such a way as to change its original purpose, but can be to make the object clear, or to better effectuate the purpose. It may be subsequently amended by a special act. The usual course is to amend it by redrafting the statute in proper form, including the amended matter, and to incorporate in the enacting clause a provision that the former statute be amended 'so as to read as follows.' This obviates special mention of words or clauses changed, or new matter added, and avoids confusion. Where the amendment obviously supersedes the act as originally passed, a special repealing clause is unnecessary in some states, but it is usually added. See REPEAL. There is a tendency to codify existing law upon particular subjects in general, comprehensive statutes, as, for example, the law of real property, the law of negotiable instruments, etc. Both the common law and existing statutory law on the subject are incorporated in such acts. The object is to cover the entire subject and settle all uncertainties, so that the Statutes of Limitation statute may be referred to as the complete law on the subject, but there are usually some omissions, and the common law still remains operative to supply such defects. Revisions of all the statutes of a state are now commonly made by legislatures. The work is done by committees or commissioners, and the result of their labors submitted to the legislature for enactment. The object of a revision is to revise where necessary, and classify all the statutes relating to each branch of the law under proper headings, and arrange miscellaneous statutes in as systematic order as possible. The titles or headings are usually arranged in alphabetical order, and a complete alphabetical index is also prepared, so that even a person not skilled in the law may refer to the statute on any subject. A compilation of statutes at large is merely a collection and classification of all the statutes in force in a state, without revision or reenactment. Statutes contained in the revised or compiled statutes of a state, or of the United States, may be amended or supplemented by subsequent acts, and it is therefore necessary to consult the year books or volumes of statutes published since the date of the revision. These are published at least once a year in most states, and 'advance sheets,' or temporary publications of statutes and decisions, are generally sent out through private enterprise or by the public printer as often as once a week. Consult Sedgwick, Statutory Laws; Cooley, Constitutional Limitations. Statutes of Limitation. See LIMITATION, STATUTES OF. Statuto, the constitution granted to Piedmont and Savoy by Charles Albert in 1848; it was afterwards extended to the whole kingdom of Italy, and is still in force. Copied mainly from the United States Constitution and from the French of 1830, it has the same defects, especially in the separation of the executive and legislature. Staubbach, celebrated waterfall (980 ft.), in s. of Canton Bern, Switzerland, 8 m. s. of Interlaken. Staunton. (1.) City, Va., co. seat of Augusta co., 100 m. w.N.W. of Richmond, on the Ches. and O. and the B. and O. R. Rs. It is the seat of the Western State Hospital for the Insane, the Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind, and of the Mary Baldwin Seminary, the Virginia Female Institute, Staunton Military Academy, and Corlier's Academy. Gipsy Hill Park is a noteworthy feature. Situated in the Shenandoah Valley, Staunton is the trade centre of a rich agricultural district. The leading manufactures are structural iron, organs, wag VOL. XI.-27 415 ons, agricultural implements, planing-mill products, flour, etc. The water-works and electriclighting plant are owned and operated by the municipality. It was settled in 1745, incorporated as a town in 1802, and chartered as a city in 1870. Pop. (1900) 7,289. (1910) 10,604. (2.) City, Macoupin co., Illinois, 35 m. N.E. of St. Louis, on the Wabash and the Litch. and Mad. R. Rs. Coalmining is the chief industry. The water-works and electric-fighting plant are owned and operated by the municipality. The place was settled about 1830 and incorporated in 1892. Pop. (1910)5,048. Staunton, HOWARD (1810-74), English chess-player and Shakespearean commentator, was almost entirely self-educated.' He early acquired a reputation as a chessplayer, and in 1843 beat St. Amant, the champion of Europe, and for nearly ten years was unbeaten. He utilized his chess knowledge to conduct newspapers devoted to chess, and chess columns in other newspapers, and to write various handbooks on the game. From 1854 he devoted much attention to the study of Shakespeare, and in 1857-60 issued an edition with notes, showing sound scholarship and sound sense. Staurolite, an aluminium, magnesium, and ferrous silicate, which crystallizes in the rhombic system, usually in twinned crystals. It is brown in color, with vitreous lustre, and is often filled with minute enclosures of other minerals (sp. gr. 3.4-3.8; h.7-7.5). It is found principally in metamorphic rocks, such as gneiss and mica-schist, where it is one of the products of recrystallization, and fine crystals are obtained from the St. Gothard, Tyrol, and Brittany. Stavanger, tn., in co. of same name, w. coast of Norway, on a s. arm of Bukken Fiord. The seat of a bishopric till 1685, its cathedral (12th-13th century) is in the Norman style, restored 1866. Navigation and fishing are the chief occupations. Pop. (1900) 30,541. Stave, or STAFF. See MUSIC, section Notation. Stavesacre. See DELPHINIUM. Stavropol. (1.) Russian gov. N. of the Caucasus, embraces the Stavropol highlands and the valleys of the upper Kuma and Kalaus. Cossacks form the bulk of the population. Area, 23,398 sq. m. Pop. (1897) 876,298. (2.) Chief tn. of above, 147 m. E. of Yekaterinodar, with flour mills and gardening. Pop. (1897) 46,965. Stay. In law, this term denotes a suspension of legal proceedings by order of a court. A stay may be granted for a num Stead ber of purposes in the interests of justice. If the plaintiff has lost a motion bearing upon his case and Owes the defendant costs, his further proceeding may be stayed until the costs are paid; where more than one action is brought for the same cause, all actions but one will be stayed; and a stay will usually be granted where it becomes necessary to take the testimony of a foreign witness under a commission, and the case is about to be reached for trial; where it is necessary to make a motion before trial; and where a defendant in an action files a petition in bankruptcy, until the bankruptcy court can pass upon his application for a discharge. In the last case proceedings in a state court may be stayed by an order of a judge of the Federal courts. The court in which an action is pending may order a stay of proceedings, or it may be ordered by a superior court. Execution upon a judgment will be stayed pending the determination of an appeal, upon a proper bond being furnished. Stays, ropes, usually of wire, which support a mast by extending from it to the ship's hull in a fore-and-aft plane, the fore stays being led to the bow and the back stays running to the stern and contributing a certain amount of side support. On these stays are rigged sails known as staysails. A ship is said to be 'in stays' when her head points to the wind, and the sails are loose while she is going about. To 'miss stays' is to fail to come up in the direction of the wind so as to get on the other tack. Stead, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849), English journalist, was born at Embleton, Northumberland; was appointed editor of the Northern Echo, Darlington, in 1871, and in 1880 assistanteditor of the Pall Mall Gazette. Three years later he succeeded to the editorial chair. He was the first to introduce American journalism, e.g. the system of interviewing and illustrations, as well as 'extras,' into the English press, and thus founded what became known as the 'new journalism.' A great sensation was created by his series of articles, "The Maiden Tribute to Modern Babylon' (July, 1885). A sentence of three months' imprisonment upon Mr. Stead, and the passing of the Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1885, were two incidents arising out of this. In 1890 he started the Review of Reviews, a monthly magazine, which has achieved a great success. He also founded the American Review of Reviews (1891), the Australasian Review of Reviews (1894), and the 'Masterpiece' Library of Penny Poets, Novels and Classics (1895). He published from 1893 to 1897 Borderland, a periodical devoted to the subject of psychical research; and in January, 1904, the Daily Paper, which was, however, discontinued after a brief existence. His publications, either in book form or as Pall Mall Gazette 'extras,' include: The Truth about the Navy (1884); The Truth about Russia (1888); The Pope and the New Era (1889); If Christ came to Chicago (1893); The Labor War in the United States (1894); Satan's Invisible World-A Study of Despairing Democracy (1897); The Americanization of the World (1902); and, in French, The Conference at The Hague, as well as many pamphlets against the South African War. Stealing. See BURGLARY, LARCENY, and ROBBERY. Steam, the transparent, colorless gas into which water is converted when it vaporizes. This change takes place quietly and by evaporation from the surface if the vapor pressure is below the external pressure: thus at the temperature of melting ice (0° c.) the vapor pressure is only 4 mm. of mercury (.077 lb. per sq. in.), but it increases with rise of temperature, till at 100° c. (212° F.) it becomes equal to 760 mm. of mercury (14.7 lbs. per sq. in.). If the external pressure is that of the atmosphere, it will be approximately equal to this amount, and with the slightest excess of the vapor pressure over it the change of the water into steam occurs rapidly and with ebullition. If the external pressure is greater than that of the atmosphere, as in a steam boiler, boiling does not occur till the water is at a much higher temperature: for example, in a boiler giving steam at 250 lbs. per sq. in. the temperature of the water is approximately 205° C. (401° F.) instead of 100° c. Steam under these conditions in the presence of water is called saturated steam, and is of a definite density for each pressure. This density is the greatest that steam can possess under the given pressure, and also corresponds to a particular temperature, fall of temperature producing a fall of pressure and condensation of some of the steam, while rise of temperature produces the converse effect, the pressure increasing much more rapidly than the temperature. Observations of the relation between the two were very carefully made by Regnault, and the results tabulated, though in the absence of the tables they may be the calculated from equation given by Rankine: log B с p=A-; where is the T T2' pressure and T the absolute tem perature; and for pounds on the of mercury, A= 6.4095, while for centigrade degrees log B 3.18115 and log c=5.08819. The absolute temperature in Fahrenheit degrees is found by adding 461.2 to the temperature F., and in centigrade degrees by adding 273 to the temperature C. If steam is heated away from water, it is said to be 'superheated,' and then obeys the ordinary laws governing the expansion of gases. The quantity of heat required to bring about the change of state from water to steam changes with the temperature at which evaporation takes place, about 600 calories being required to evaporate 1 gram at 0° C., 536 calories at 100° C. (1,146 B.T.U. to evaporate 1 lb. at 212° F.), thereafter diminishing, till at 200° c. it is reduced to about 470 calories. This falling off may be calculated from the expression I. (heat required to convert water into steam at t°c.) = 606 7t; but this probably only holds good for moderate temperatures, as water reaches its critical point, at which the difference between liquid and vapor cannot be distinguished, at a temperature of 365° c. To heat the steam itself requires .481 calorie per gram per degree c. (.481 B.T.U. per lb. per degree F.) at constant pressure and .346 calorie at constant volume. In this way, though the total amount of heat required to generate steam increases as the temperature at which it is required rises, yet owing to the falling off in the heat of vaporization the difference is but small, and for use in steam-engines is overbalanced by the increased economy due to the higher working temperature. Steam naturally occupies a very much larger volume than the water it is obtained from: thus 1 volume of water at ordinary temperature produces about 1,700 volumes of steam at 100° c. The vapor is lighter than air at the same temperature, and, contrary to the common idea, is invisible; the white cloud seen issuing from a steam-pipe, and usually called 'steam,' is in reality a fog of minute liquid particles produced by condensation. Besides its commonest use as the working substance in engines, steam is also largely employed for heating, its large latent heat being restored on condensation, for introducing moisture in various operations, and for disinfection; thus saturation of clothing, etc., with steam under slight pressure is very effective in that respect. Steam is also an excellent fireextinguisher if the fire is burning in an enclosed space, such as a compartment in a ship's hold, which can be effectually filled with steam. One 1842 been Steam and Pneumatic Hammers. It would appear that a steam-hammer was patented by James Watt in 1784, and also by William Deverell in 1806; but no record exists of a hammer ever having been constructed by either. The full credit of mak ing the steam-hammer a practical and workable machine is entirely due to James Nasmyth of Manches ter, England, who designed in 1839, though he did not actu ally construct it then. During a visit to France in the early part of 1842, Nasmyth was surprised to find a steam-hammer, which had been made according to his original design, at work in le Creusot. This discovery led him to patent his invention, and in he constructed his first directaction steam-hammer. Nasmyth's first hammer was very similar in general design to the steam-hammers now in use; it has modified and improved in minor details, but the principle of action remains the same. The original hammer consisted of a base plate with a central opening, through which the top of the anvil projected. Two cast-iron standards, supporting an overhead inverted steam cylinder, were bolted to the base plate, and also formed guides to direct the motion of the hammer head, which was directly connected to the piston rod. The admission of the steamto the underside only of the piston-was effected through a simple slide-valve operated by suitable levers. The energy of the blow delivered by the head was determined by the height through which it fell before impact. This height could be regulated, within the limits of the full stroke of the piston, by means of the slide valve. On the down stroke the steam below the piston was allowed to escape freely into the air. Later, in order to increase the blow given by the hammer, Nasmyth made it double-acting, steam being admitted to the top of the piston, thereby considerably accelerating the downward motion of the tup. The blow delivered by a steam-hammer can be regulated with the utmost nicety both as to speed and to force; the hammer can be stopped and started instantly, and made to deliver a rapid succession of sharp blows or the slow thud of a mass weighing many tons. It is usual to indicate the size of a hammer by the weight of the falling mass, including the tup, piston rod, and piston. Thus a 1,000 pound hammer is one in which the moving mass is 1,000 pounds. No account is taken piston type, and by moving this valve up or down-the dotted lines indicate the extreme positions of the valve-steam can pass from the middle port c into the upper or lower port respectively. On the up stroke the exhaust steam from the upper end of the cylinder passes through the port SP and out at E; the valve D is made hollow so as to permit the exhaust steam from the under side of the piston to escape through it. The valve gear is self-acting, but it can also be worked by hand through the handle L; by moving this handle up or down the valve D is brought into its lower or upper position respectively, and the piston rises or descends under the action of the steam. The selfacting motion is obtained through a curved lever F working about a movable fulcrum H, and kept in contact with a roller R on the head by means of a spring м attached to the end of the short arm of the lever. As the head ascends the lever F is moved to the right, and the valve spindle N lifted by a pin K connected to the short arm of the lever; the valve D is thus placed in a position to allow steam to enter the upper port and bring the piston down again. The length of the piston's stroke can be regulated by varying the position of the fulcrum H; this is effected through a sector lever T. The extreme positions P and Q of the lever T obtain for the piston its longest and shortest strokes respectively. The lever L is not used when the hammer is working self-acting. To give a dead blow this lever is presssed down. A double-column hammer for heavy forging work, etc., is shown in Fig. 3. Valve gear worked by hand or self-acting is fitted as required. Fig. 4 is a vertical and Fig. 5 a transverse section through the cylinder and valve casing. The piston valve v is formed of two solid discs, and the steam is admitted into the space D between them. The method of working is practically the same as already described. Fig. 6 is a section through the valve casing of a hammer fitted with a valve v provided with three pistons. Το raise the hammer piston the valve is moved upwards, and the steam is admitted to the under side of the piston. When the latter has reached its top position, the valve is moved downwards, shutting off the main steam supply, and putting both sides of the piston into communication through the ports and the space D. Although the pressure per square inch is the same on both sides of the piston, the total downward pressure will be in excess of the total upward pressure, because the effective area of the lower face of the pis ton is much less than the area of the upper face; the force of the blow is thus augmented. When the valve is in its top position, the exhaust steam from above the piston escapes through the top ring of holes E. Compressed air is sometimes used instead of steam as the motive power for hammers. Fig. 7. showing a pneumatic hammer. For very heavy forgingsarmor plates, large crankshafts, etc.-the steam hammer has been almost entirely superseded by the hydraulic press. The steam hammer, by its quick blow, works the outer parts of the metal on which it operates more than the inner parts and in the case of large, thick pieces, flaws or bad spots which seriously weaken them have sometimes been left beneath the surface, causing the piece to break when a stress was applied. This is almost entirely obviated by forging with a press, in which the hot metal is subjected to a slow squeezing pressure and the inner part is worked even more thoroughly than the outer. Besides this, the hydraulic press works the metal much more uniformly than the hammer, as it gives the metal more time to flow while under pressure. For this reason, the great 125-ton hammer which was erected at the Bethlehem Iron Works, S. Bethlehem, Pa., was dismantled and a large hydraulic press now forges the armor plates and heavy forgings. Steam-chest. (1.) Of an engine, the chamber in which the valve works which admits steam to the cylinder. (2.) In textile printing, a tank in which cloths are steamed to fix their colors. Steam engine. The steamengine, in its many forms, is the agent by means of which part of the energy stored up in the steam, as supplied by a boiler, is converted into mechanical or useful work. It is well known that Hero of Alexandria (probably of the first or second century B.C.) described in his work entitled Spiritalia seu Pneumatica the use of steam to drive a kind of steam-turbine; also that the Italian engineer Branca (1629) made a wheel to rotate by means of a jet of steam which impinged on vanes set on its rim. These, however, were not much more than toys, and it was not until the time of the Marquis of Worcester (1663), Savery, Papin, Newcomen, and Watt that the energy of steam was applied to any useful purpose. The earlier steam-engines were used almost entirely for pumping water from mines. Savery's engine (1698) was the first practical steam-engine, and consisted of two egg-shaped vessels of equal size, the upper and lower ends of which could be connected Steam-engine alternately with a boiler and with a pipe leading to a well, respect ively. One of the vessels having been filled with steam, communication with the boiler was shut off, and the steam condensed by the cooling action of a jet of water on the outside of the ves sel. This resulted in a partial vacuum being formed, and water was forced by the pressure of the atmosphere from the well into the vessel. Fresh steam then admitted, and the water forced by it from the vessel to a tank at some higher level. This action went on alternately in the two vessels; while one was filling the other was being emptied. This engine has a modern repre sentative in the pulsometer, in which the principle of action is practically the same as in prototype. was its The first steam - engine with cylinder and piston was no doubt the invention of Denis Papin (1690), who suggested that a vacuum could be formed under a piston by the condensation of steam previously used for raising the piston. Fifteen years later Papin devised a modified form of his first engine, consisting of a displacement chamber or cylinder with a diaphragm or piston floating on the top of the water. When communication was made with the boiler, steam acted upon the upper surface of the diaphragm, pressing it down and forcing the water through a pipe fitted with a non- return valve into a vessel at a higher elevation. At the conclusion of a working stroke (down) the steam was allowed to escape through a cock, and more water was admitted from the source of supply, bringing the piston to its top position again, ready for the next down stroke. Papin's second engine can hardly be looked upon as an improvement on his first, as it had many of the defects of Savery's engine, while the first was, without doubt, an atmospheric engine, afterwards, elaborated by Newcomen and Watt. Papin also introduced a mass of hot metal into a recess in the top of the piston, with the object of keeping the steam dry. He also invented a boiler with an internal fire-box, a type which is now in common use. Papin did not reach a practical success in any of his inventions, but he paved the way for his more successful followers. Newcomen, in conjunction with Calley (1705), made the piston engine a practical machine. Newcomen's was an atmospheric engine; in this type the piston is forced down by the pressure of the atmosphere, a partial vacuum having been previously formed within the cylinder. Newcomen's |