He also made very notable observations of eclipses. In 1879 he returned to England as Radcliffe observer at Oxford, and organized several astronomical expeditions for observations in distant parts of the earth.

Stone, ELLEN MARIA (1846), American missionary, born at Roxbury, Mass., and educated as a teacher. After several years' experience upon the editorial staff of the Boston Congregationalist, she began missionary work at Samokov, Bulgaria, in 1878, afterward settling at Salonica, Macedonia. In 1901 she was captured, with the wife of an Albanian Protestant preacher, by Macedonian brigands, and was released after six months upon the payment of a ransom of $65,000, most of it raised by public subscription in the U. S. She returned home in 1902, and has described her experiences in lectures and in McClure's Magazine (May-Oct., 1902).

Stone, MELVILLE ELIJAH (1848), American journalist, was born in Hudson, Ill. Removing to Chicago in 1864 he became a reporter on the Chicago Tribune. He engaged in business for a few years, but returned to journalism, established the Chicago Daily News in 1875, and in 1881 the Chicago Morning News, which subsequently became the Chicago Record. His health having fa.led he spent three years in Europe, and after his return to Chicago in 1891 he organized the Globe National Bank, of which he was president until 1898. In that year he removed to New York and became general manager of the Associated Press.

Stone, SAMUEL (1602-63), American clergyman, born in Hertford, England. He studied in Emanuel College, Cambridge; emigrated to Mass. in 1633; and in 1636 removed with Thomas Hooker and others to the Connecticut valley, where they founded the town of Hartford. There he preached until his death. He published 4 Congregational Church is a Catholic Visible Church (1652), and left other religious works in manuscript.

Stone, THOMAS (1743-87), American politician, signer of the Declaration of Independence, born in Charles co., Md. He was admitted to the bar in 1764, was a member of the Continental Congress in 1775-77 and 1783-84 and president pro tem. in 1784.

Stone, WARREN SANFORD (1860), American labor-union leader, born at Ainsworth, Ia., and educated at the Western College, Iowa. He began railroad work as a locomotive fireman on the Rock Island system, becoming an engineer in 1884. Upon the death of Grand Chief Arthur

of the International Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, in 1904, he was elected his successor.

Stone, WILLIAM JOEL (1848), American legislator, born in Madison co., Ky. He was graduated at the Univ. of Mo., admitted to the bar in 1869, and became prosecuting attorney of Vernon co., Mo., in 1873-74. He was member of Congress in 1885-91, governor of Mo. in 1893-97, member of Dem. national committee in 1896-1904, vice-chairman in 1900-4, and elected U. S. Senator for the terms of 1903-15.

Stone, WILLIAM LEETE (17921844), American journalist and author, was born at New Paltz, N. Y. In 1821 he became editor and part owner of the New York Commercial Advertiser, retaining the connection until his death. He initiated in 1838 the movement for the collection of papers and documents relating to the history of the state of New York. published: Tales and Sketches, aboriginal and Revolutionary (1834), Maria Monk and the Nunnery of the Hotel Dicu (1836), Life of Joseph Brant (1838), Life of Red Jacket (1840), and Uncas and Miantonomeh (1842). See Life and Writings, by his son (1866).

He

Stone, WILLIAM LEETE, JR. (1835-1908), Amer. author, son of the preceding, was born in New York city, and graduated (1858) at Brown, and at the Albany Law School in 1859. He chiefly devoted himself to historical writing on Revolutionary subjects. Among his works are: The Life and Times of Sir William Johnson, Bart. (1865), A History of New York City (1872), The Campaign of General Burgoyne and St. Leger's Expedition (1877), and a number of genealogies.

Sir

Stone Age, the term applied by European archæologists to that earliest period of man's existence which is chiefly characterized by his use of tools, implements, and weapons of stone, bone, and horn. That a period existed characterized by man's use of stone implements is no new idea. William Dugdale in 1660, Bishop Lyttleton in 1766, and the observations of Mahudel in 1734 all preceded the modern Danish school of antiquaries in the suggested classification of archæofogical relics into the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. But the Stone Age, be its origin remote or not, is divisible into two periods

-the Palæolithic and the Neolithic, terms first used by Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury)—a classification clearly enough represented throughout the European continent, but scarcely applicable to America. See AMERICAN AR

CHEOLOGY.

1. Paleolithic, or Early Stone Age. This division is itself sub

divisible into the period (1) of the river-gravels, and (2) of the caves, the fauna and implements of which are not in all cases identical. (1.) Cores and nuclei (livres-de-beurre) of flint

are

among the earliest remnants of tool - making. The tools made from them are formed by chipping only, and are not ground or polished; and the materials, besides flint, are chert and quartzite. The discovery of implements of this earliest period was made in 1847, by Boucher de Perthes of Abbeville. Subse quently, similar discoveries were made at Chelles (Seine-et-Marne), St. Acheul, in Paris, in Côtes-duNord, in Poitou, and indeed over the greater part of France. In association with many of these implements the remains of three extinct species of elephant were cbtained. Implements of this period have also been reported from Belgium, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Greece. They vary in shape from broad thick ovals to long, broad-based, and attenuated forms, and in size from two and a half inches in length to massive pointed tools ten and eleven inchs in length. (2.) Cave implements. It is in France, again. that the earliest systematized results of the investigation of caverns were brought before archæologists, the relics being chiefly obtained in Dordogne. Dr. Schmerling also, early in the 19th century, discovered in Belgium human bones, worked flints. and bone implements in association with the remains of extinct animals. Continental observers, indeed, go so far as to attempt to distinguish between a mammoth and a reindeer period, according to the remains found. The earliest of the cave implements (Le Moustier) are ovate-lanceolate in form, large subtriangular flakes worked at the edge, and rough sling-stones; and there is an almost entire absence of implements of bone. Next (Solutréen) come lance-heads and daggers. arrow-heads of two forms, knifelike flakes, scrapers and borersall of flint. In bone or reindeerhorn, these early people made lance-heads, a very few of which are engraved with figures of animals. Thirdly (La Madelaine). well-shaped flint flakes, scrapers, pebbles used as mortars and rounded hammer-stones, are all fairly abundant; a few flint saws have been found; while in bone and horn there are dart-heads, harpoon-heads, and small perforated needles. The art of the period is marked by the frequency of incised figures of animals (very rarely of the human figure) done upon stone, bone, horn, and ivory, and by ornaments formed of pierced bones and teeth. Fish

bones and bird-bones are abundant. In Great Britain, objects of human manufacture have been found in association with more than twenty extinct species, including the lemming (Mus lemmus), the hyæna (H. crocuta), the sabre-toothed tiger (Machairodus latidens), the cave lion (Felis leo), the Irish elk, the mammoth (E. primigenius), and the hippopotamus. Nevertheless, as Sir John Evans insists, the occupation of caves by man is not confined to any definite period, and even in the case of the discovery of objects of human workmanship in direct association with the remains of the Pleistocene extinct mammals, their contemporaneity cannot be proved without careful observation of the circumstances under which they occur, even if then.'

2. Neolithic or Later Stone Age. The principal larger implements characterizing this period are axe-heads, of an endless variety of form and size, but in nearly every instance polished and ground to a perfect cutting edge; chisels, of polished flint and other very hard stones; axe-hammers, of a great variety of sizes and shapes, perforated for a wooden shaft; hammer-stones, plain and with cup-shaped depressions; circularly chipped thick discs of quartzitic stones, almost exclusively confined to the shores of the Moray Firth in Scotland; saddlequerns and hand-mills; grinding and whet stones. Smaller implements are spear-heads, arrowheads, fabricators, knives, and scrapers, made of flint and chert, obsidian, quartzites, and other hard materials. Saws of flint occur in great abundance on the sands of Glenluce (Scotland); and quite recently a minute type of flint implement, less than inch in length and frequently not one-twelfth in breadth, exquisitely worked all round the edges, has been noticed, principally by the Rev. Reginald A. Gatty in Yorkshire and by other collectors in France, Egypt, Belgium, India, and in Scotland. Beautifully trimmed curved daggers of flint are a feature in the Neolithic relics of Denmark. Ornaments of jet or lignite, such as buttons and rings bearing decoration, necklaces, armlets, pendants, and beads show that early man displayed a taste for dress and personal adornment.

one

See

Sir J. Evans's Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain (1897); Lord Avebury's [Lubbock] Prehistoric Times (ed. 1900); Dawkins's Early Man in Britain (1880).

Stone-chat (Pratincola rubicola), one of the smaller European passerine birds. It reaches a length of about five inches, and has

the head and throat black, the back black with brown markings, the breast rufous, the sides of the neck white, and a distinct white

Stone-chat.

patch on the wing. The nest is placed among herbage on the ground, and the eggs number from five to six. The food consists chiefly of worms, insect larvæ, and beetles, with some seeds.

Stone Circles, as understood by modern archæologists, means a circular area enclosed by freestanding, pillar-like stones. But the term has been applied (1) to many different and more or less circular arrangements of stones, whether the stones were merely contiguous (as in the boundary of a cairn) or formed the ruined portion of a wall, such as that of a broch; and (2) to numerous arrangements of small stones in India, France, and Ireland. There is now, however, no doubt that the stone circle properly so called has its archæological home in Great Britain, and further, that in Scotland we find the area of its fullest development. See CIRCLES OF STONE.

Stone-crop, the popular name for plants of the genus Sedum, order Crassulaceæ. See SEDUM.

Stone-fly, a name given by British anglers to the species of the genus Perla, which are neuropterous insects belonging to the family Perlidæ. A common species is P. marginata, a yellowishbrown insect, somewhat mothlike in flight, and of sluggish habits. It is found in the vicinity of water, in which the eggs are deposited, and where the young pass the whole of their larval life. Species of stone-fly are found in America, but are not used as bait.

Stone-fruit. See FRUIT.

Stoneham, tn., Middlesex co., Mass., 10 m. N. by w. of Boston, on the Bost. and Me. R. R. It is largely a residential place. It has manufactures of boots and shoes, automobiles, boxes, chemicals, drugs and medicines, shoe stock, cutting dies, etc. It has a public library. Stoneham adjoins Middlesex Falls Reservation, a large

state park. settled about 1670 as a part of Charlestown, and called Charlestown End. In 1725 it was sepa rately incorporated and took the name it now bears. Pop. 1910)

The town was

7.090.

Stonehenge. This unique meg. alithic structure has been the subject, for a period of seven hundred years, of the wildest theories. The earliest yet discovered notice of it is by Henry of Huntingdon (d. 1154). The theories regarding its origin include the following: That here was the burial-place of Boadicea; that it was the Giants' Dance removed by Merlin from Ireland and rebuilt on Salisbury Plain; Dr. Charlton, physician to Charles II., deemed it Danish; Inigo Jones, who made a plan of it for James I., set it down as Roman; John Aubrey, the originator of the Druidic theory, made plans in 1666, and of course claimed it as a Druid temple; Stukeley in 1740 started the the ory that it was part of a vast ophite monument; and other theories were propounded by Andrew Borde (1542), John Hardyng (1543), Leland (1552), John Speed (1627), John Stow (1631), and Thomas Fuller (1656). The oldest known drawing of it occurs in a MS. of the Scala Mundi (c. 1340) in the college of Corpus Christi at Cambridge.

Stonehenge consists of a triply concentric group of stones ar ranged nearly in a circle, and within the circumference of a deep trench, the diameter of which is 333 ft. The outermost circle of megaliths has a diameter of 100 ft., the middle of 75 ft., and the innermost of 40 ft. The outermost circle consisted (when complete) of probably thirty great upright stones, each about 12 ft. high, 6 ft. broad, and over 3 ft. thick. Every couple was covered by a great oblong block, fastened on mortise-and-tenon principle, these stones being 10 ft. long. In the middle circle the stones, only seven of which now remain, are of diabasc, a mineral of a very different composition from the sarsens of the outer ring. The innermost circle is composed of diabase, and, like the middle circle, of much smaller blocks. There may have been twenty-two, and opinions differ as to whether they are of the same date as the rest of the structure. The outstanding feature of Stonehenge, however, is the presence, between these two inner circles of comparatively small stones, of a horseshoe-shaped group of sarsen stones of transcendent magnitude. One couple with its lintel occupies a space on the southwest (the middle of the 'horseshoe' curve), and four others

Stone Indians

complete the arrangement. Two of the uprights of these great trilithons stand over 22 ft. above ground, and the other three are 16 ft. and over. The lintels measure about 15 ft. In front of the southwest trilithon, and well inside the circle, lies a vast stone 18 ft. long and over 4 ft. wide, called 'the altar.' On the northeast is a great stone called 'the Friar's Heel,' standing outside of the circle. Partial excavation conducted in 1901 resulted in the discovery of a few flint implements, stone hammers, and a sort of pounder-chisel, which seems to have been the tool used in 'dressing' the stones. No pottery was discovered by which alone it would be possible to assign the date either to the new Stone Age or the Bronze Age. It may be mentioned, however, that experts in astronomy, founding on the assumption that Stonehenge was

475

to

of captain. Ordered by Gen. Twiggs to surrender his post to the Confederates, he refused to do so, and managed to bring his command in safety New York. He was appointed major in the regular army and brigadier-general of volunteers, and given command of the cavalry of the Army of the Potomac, which he led in the Peninsula campaign. He took command of Kearny's division after the latter's death at Chantilly, and commanded the Third Corps at Fredericksburg. He had been made major-general of volunteers on Nov. 29, 1862. He again commanded the cavalry during the Chancellorsville campaign, conducting a raid upon Lee's line of supplies, commanded the Twenty-third Corps in Jan.-April, 1864, and commanded a cavalry division in the Atlanta campaign. He was captured on July 31, 1864,

Stone River

enough, both generals decided upon the same plan of battlenamely, to overwhelm the right wing of the opposing army-but the Confederates were the first to attempt the execution of their plan. Early on the morning of Dec. 31 General McCook, who commanded the Union right, was attacked with great vigor by General Hardee. Before noon his division had been driven from its position with heavy loss, and it was only through the heroic stand of General Thomas, who commanded the Union centre, the splendid fighting qualities of General Philip Sheridan, who here first brought himself into prominence, and Rosecrans's skill in rearranging his lines, that a total defeat was averted. As it was, the advantage was decidedly with the Confederates, who captured 28 guns and many prisoners. New Year's Day was almost de

a sun-temple, have arrived at the date 1680 B.C.-a date pretty closely corresponding with the period of the Bronze Age in Britain. See Sir H. James's Stonehenge and its Barrows (1867); Long, in Wiltshire Magazine for 1876; Archæologia, vol. lviii. pt. 1; and Flinders Petrie's Stonehenge (1881).

Stone Indians, or STONIES, a division of the Assiniboines now residing in a small reservation in Alberta. The name was often given to the whole Assiniboine group. See ASSINIBOINE. Also Franklin's Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea, etc. (London, 1823); Maximillion's Travels in the Interior of North America (London, 1843).

Stone man, GEORGE (1822-94), American soldier, born at Busti, N. Y. He graduated at West Point in 1846, served on the Pacific coast until 1857, and in 1861 was in command at Ft. Brown, Tex., with the rank

Stonehenge.
(Photo by Valentine.)

while attempting a raid on Andersonville. Released in October, he was active in East Tenn., N. C., and Va. until the close of the war. He became a colonel in the regular army in 1866 and retired in 1871. In 1883-87 he was governor of Cal.

Stone River, a small river of Tennessee, rising near the centre of the state, flowing northward, and emptying into the Cumberland river a few miles above Nashville. On its west fork was fought the battle of Stone River, or of Murfreesboro, Dec. 31, 1862, and Jan. 2, 1863.

Stone River, BATTLE OF, sometimes known as the battle of Murfreesboro, a battle of the Civil War, fought Dec. 31, 1862, and Jan. 2, 1863, near Murfreesboro, on the west fork of Stone river, in Tennessee. The Federal army of about 41,000 men was commanded by General Rosecrans, and that of the Confederates, numbering about 35,000 men, by General Bragg. Strangely

void of fighting, but on the afternoon of Jan. 2 General Breckinridge, in an attack upon a Union position on a hill near the river, brought his men in range of the Union batteries on the other side of the river, with the result that about 2,000 Confederates fell in twenty minutes. By nightfall the Union army had advanced to a point from whence shells could be thrown into the Confederate quarters in Murfreesboro, and Bragg therefore withdrew his army during the night of the 3d. The battle had been one of the most murderous of the war, the Union loss being about 13,000, and that of the Confederates about 11,000. Though tactically a draw, strategically the battle was a Union victory. It opened Central Tennessee to them, and coming as it did after the disaster of Fredericksburg (q.v.), it did much to reanimate the North. See Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (1887-88); Cist, The Army of the Cumberland (1882);

Ropes, Story of the Civil War (1894-98); Van Horne, History of the Army of the Cumberland (1875); and Official Records (vol. xx., parts i. and ii.).

Stones, PRECIOUS. See GEMS AND PRECIOUS STONES.

Stoneware, a crude kind of porcelain, of which the materials, mainly flint and feldspar, are of coarser quality, and have not been so strongly heated and nearly fused in the process of manufacture. Stoneware is unlike porcelain in being opaque, and differs from earthenware in not being porous. It is, however, usually glazed by throwing salt into the furnace, the sodium of the salt forming a kind of glass with the silica of the ware. See POTTERY.

Stonework. See MASONRY.

Stonington, tn., New London co., Conn., 11 m. E. by s. of New London, on Long I. Sound, and on the N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R. The harbor is deep and commodious, and a thriving coast trade and fishing industry are carried

on.

There are railroad shops, thread mills, and manufactories of printing presses, silk, cotton, woollen goods, and velvets, silk machinery, boilers, fertilizers, and iron products. Whaling and sealing were formerly extensively carried on from this place. Settled in 1649 by William Cheesebrough, a member of Plymouth Colony, this town was originally a part of Massachusetts. It was named Southertown in 1658, and in 1662 came into the possession of Connecticut. In 1665 it was called Mystic, and in 1666 received the name it now bears. The British bombarded Stonington in 1775 and again in 1814, but both attacks were unsuccessful. Pop. (1910)

9,154.

Stony Creek, vil., Wentworth co., Ont., Canada, 5 m. E.S.E. of Hamilton, on the Gr. Trunk and the Tor., Ham, and Buf. R. Rs. In 1813, a battle was fought here between American and British forces in which the former were defeated. Pop. about 650.

Stonyhurst, Roman Catholic college, Lancashire, England, 5 m. N.W. of Whalley station (L. & Y. Ry.). The buildings are chiefly modern, added to an Elizabethan mansion. The library (30,000 vols.) contains some rare treasures, including an uncial Latin MS. (7th century) of St. John's Gospel, found in the tomb of St. Cuthbert; an illuminated MS. of Froissart's Chronicles, vol. i. (the companion volume is in the British Museum); a Prayer Book which belonged to Mary Queen of Scots; a large number of illuminated MSS. of the 14th and 15th centuries; and a large collection of historical MSS. lating to Catholic affairs in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries.

re

In the ornamental grounds is an astronomical observatory. There are about 300 students.

Stonypoint, tn., Rockland co., N. Y., 35 m. N. of New York city, on the w. bank of the Hudson K., and on the N. Y., Ont. and W. and the W. Shore R. Rs. The storming of the British post here by Gen. Wayne in 1779 was one of the most brilliant exploits of the Revolutionary War (see below). The scene of the fighting is now occupied by a state park. Pop. (1910) 3,651.

Stony Point, STORMING OF. In the beginning of 1779 Gen. Washington held the Highlands of the Hudson around West Point, and the remainder of the Continental army was in supporting distance. With the hope of compelling Washington to offer battle, Sir Henry Clinton, on May 31, forced the small garrison of Stony Point, on the w. bank of the river, 35 miles above New York, to evacuate the post, and the next day captured the garrison at Verplanck's Point on the E. bank of the river, thus gaining possession of King's Ferry. Washington refused to hazard a battle and did not oppose Wm. Tryon (q.v.) in his invasion of Connecticut. Early in June, Clinton withdrew the main body of his forces down the river, but left a strong garrison at Stony Point. Washington determined to surprise the fort and ordered Gen. Wayne, with the corps of Light Infantry, the picked troops of the Continental army, to make a night attack. The corps, 1.350 strong, was inspected five miles below West Point on July 15, and marched 13 miles south and west directly behind the Point, which was cut off from the mainland by a marsh. The troops started at 11:30 P.M. in two columns, the right led by Wayne himself, the left. by Col. Richard Butler, to which was attached a smaller force under Maj. Hardy Murfree, who was to make a feint in front. All the troops except Murfree's were forbidden under penalty of death to load or fire their guns, but were to depend upon the bayonet. While crossing the marsh Wayne's column was discovered and fired upon. Maj. Murfree opened a noisy fire in the front or western side, and Lieut.-Col. Johnston, the commander of the post, with about half the force, hastened to the outer redoubts to repel the attack. Meanwhile both the right and left columns overcame the British resistance within 30 minutes and entered the works from the north and the south at one o'clock. The fifteen captured cannon were at once turned on Verplanck's, but, owing to a misunderstanding, the troops to in

vest that post did not move until too late. The British loss was 63 killed and 543 prisoners were taken. On the American side 15 were killed and 83 were wounded. As the post was unable to withstand a siege, it was abandoned on July 18, and im mediately reoccupied by the British. Though of little direct practical advantage, the capture increased American confidence, and hindered the dispatch of raiding parties. See Johnston, Stony Point (1900); Stillé, Wayne (1903).

Stool of Repentance, a seat or pew in the parish churches of Scotland, in which those sentenced to expiate such sins as immorality, lying, evil-speaking, drunkenness, and the like had to appear and remain during serv ice. The offender was clothed in a long robe of sacking, or was wrapped in a white sheet, and thus apparelled was required to stand, for minor offences, one or two Sundays, but for major

ones

several days. In earlier times it was customary to add a public rebuke from the pulpit; but this fell into desuetude, though the 'stool' was kept up till the early part of the 19th century, and the rebuke was given within the privacy of the session until very recent days.

Stoppage in Transitu. In law, this phrase denotes the exercise of the right of a seller of goods to retain or retake possession of them after they have been shipped, but before an actual or constructive delivery has been made to the buyer, and hold them until he receives payment of the entire purchase price, where the buyer is insolvent. It is immaterial whether the buyer was insolvent at the time of the sale, if this fact was unknown to the seller, or became so after the goods were shipped. It is not necessary that the buyer be judicially declared insolvent or adjudicated a bankrupt, if in fact he is unable to meet his obligations as they fall due. However, the seller takes the risk, and may become liable in damages if he is mistaken. The right is not lost because credit for a certain period was given, nor by receiving the debtor's promissory note, urless it was taken as actual payment, and it may be enforced to secure a balance of the purchase price where part has been paid. The goods are considered in transit until they reach the destination named in the contract of sale, and come into the actual or constructive control of the buyer. Thus, goods may have arrived at a railroad freight house, and still be subject to the order of the seller, but if not, and the railroad company holds them subject to the buyer's orders, there is a