period in blades of iron, a large number of these having been found in Britain and in France and Belgium. In many cases there have been preserved the sheaths and chapes which belonged to the sword of the Bronze Age.

The Roman sword was straight, two-edged, and nearly of equal width throughout, occasionally measuring about three feet in length. The Greeks, previously to about 400 B.C., used a very short sword, slighter in make than the Roman. But the Britons outdid even the Romans in the size and weight of their swords. The viking sword was of iron, long, straight, broad, and weighty. The hilts are but rarely of bronze, and then decorated very richly with silver. Iron swords with bronze sheaths have been found in England and the Swiss lake dwellings have also yielded a considerable number of these swords. The type, therefore, is widely distributed, and their period has been computed to be from about 300 B.C. to 100 A.D.

the famous name of Andrea Ferrara inscribed on the broadest portion, sometimes accompanied by the figure of a running fox. The blades are occasionally thirtyfive inches in length, and the hiltwork displays richly designed open work. The fact of a blade being inscribed Ferrara is not a proof that the sword dates from the time of that maker; the name was doubtless used to designate any well-tempered blade of this type for long afterwards.

In Elizabethan times whiffles was the name applied to swords of wood, probably used for practice, and such swords are still carried by the whifflers on certain ceremonious occasions. Modern military swords are constructed so as to combine the advantages of cutting and thrusting. While thrusting is undoubtedly the most effective attack, it demands more skill and coolness than can be counted upon from the average soldier recently recruited from civil life. His natural tendency will be to use the cut, and for this reason modern service swords are made on the

The swords belonging to the middle ages, and to more recent times, may be grouped under the following heads: (1) The scimitar, a highly tempered curved blade, with the cutting edge on the convex side. It is one of the chief weapons used by Eastern nations. (2.) The sabre, the heavy sword of the dragoons, thick at the back, and meant for thrusting as well as for a cutting stroke. (3.) The rapier, in its recent form a light, highly tempered thrusting weapon-the weapon of the duellist; it is now worn only in court ceremonics. (4.) The cutlass, a broad and straight-edged sword, about three feet in length, used by sailors when boarding an enemy's ship. (5.) Broadswords,

now

obsolete. The Highland claymore, which may be grouped here, measured in length of blade alone frequently over 3 ft. 6 in., the grip being 12 in., usually having a globular pommel, and the quillons of the guard ornamented in various ways. A twohanded sword, 8 ft. 5 in. in length, is preserved in the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. (6.) Basket-hilted swords have long tapering blades, often slightly ribbed and fluted, with

compromise combination plan indicated above. In the United States army the straight sword is no longer in use, a single form of slightly curved sabre being carried by all officers. The sabre carried by mounted enlisted men is somewhat heavier than that used by officers. For historical sketch, see Sir R. Burton's Book of the Sword (1884).

Sword-fish are pelagic bony fish, which should not be confused with the Elasmobranch saw-fish. They constitute a special family (Xiphiida), characterized by the fact that the upper jaw is produced into a long sword-like weapon, which is formed by the united maxillary and intermaxillary bones, and is rough on its under surface owing to the presence of minute teeth. The lateral saw-like teeth of the saw-fish are, however, entirely absent Swordfish attain a length of from twelve to fifteen feet, and are exceedingly powerful and savage. They prey upon other large fish, such as cod and tunny, which are transfixed with the sword, and are also in the habit of attacking whales and other cetacea, for what reason is not well known. They also attack boats and

Sycamore

canoes, and even large vessels. In this case, though the sword can be driven through the solid wood, it cannot always be withdrawn, and is frequently broken off by the fish in its struggles to escape. In the South Sea Islands the fish are greatly dreaded. The body of the sword-fish is elongated and compressed, the eyes lateral, the mouth deeply cleft. The dorsal fin is either single or divided, and is frequently much elongated, so that when erected it projects above the water as the fish swims near the surface, and is then said to function as a sail, the fish quietly floating with the wind in search of prey. The common sword-fish is Xiphias gladius, which occurs in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, and is constantly taken along our coasts in midsummer. In the Indian and Pacific Oceans occur the species of Histiophorus, distinguished by the presence of two styliform ventral fins. The Mediterranean species is used as food.

Sybaris, ancient Greek colony in South Italy. on w. side of Gulf of Tarentum, founded by emigrants from Achæa and Træzen about 720 B.C. The city became proverbial for its wealth and luxury. The people of the neighboring Croton destroyed it thoroughly in 510 B.C., turning the river Crathis over the site.

Sybel, HEINRICH VON (181795), German historian, born at Düsseldorf; a pupil of Ranke, he became professor of history at Bonn (1844), Marburg (1846), Munich (1856), and again at Bonn (1861), where he remained till 1875, when he was appointed director of the state archives at Berlin. He was a keen politician, occupying seats in succession in the Hessian Diet, the Erfurt Parliament, the Constituent Assembly, and the Prussian Lower House. This gave him that insight into political movements which renders his histories of such value. His principal works are Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzugs (1841-58; Eng. trans. 1861), Die Entstehung des deutschen Königstums (1844); Geschichte der Revolutionszeit von 1789 bis 1795 (1855-77); Die Begründung des deutschen Reichs (1889-94; Eng. trans. by Perrin, 1890-97). His minor works have appeared as Kleine historische Schriften (1863-80), also Vorträge und Abhandlungen (1897). He also initiated the issue of Publikationen aus den preussischen Staatsarchiven and Politische Korrespondenz Friedrichs des Grossen, helped to edit Monumenta Germania Historica, and founded and edited Die Historische Zeitschrift.

Sycamore, a European tree, Acer pseudo-platanus, with a straight, erect, smooth trunk.

Sycamore

large, spreading, symmetrical branches, and large, five-lobed leaves. In early spring the greenish flowers appear in long, drooping clusters, and are followed by winged seeds of a reddish-green color. The timber is highly esteemed by turners, cabinet-makers, carvers, and toymakers, the figured wood being used for violins. It is manufactured into bread-platters, butter

Sycamore.

1, Flower; 2, pistil; 3, fruit.

dishes, and moulds, and is also in demand for bobbins, reels, coach-panels, cutting-boards for shoemakers, shop-boards for butchers, and wooden type. Large wood is sought after for calicoprinting rollers, and when quartered for those of washing-machines. It is superior to beech both as fuel and for charcoal. The plane-tree (Platanus occidentalis), is also called 'sycamore,' and, in the Orient, Ficus Sycamorus is known by this name.

Sycamore, city, Ill., co. seat of De Kalb co., 57 m. w. by N. of Chicago, on a branch of the Kishwaukee R., and on the Chi. Gt. W. and the Chi. and N. W. R. Rs. It has canneries and manufactories of brass, hardware specialties, insulated wire, farming implements, wagons, condensed milk, etc. The first settlement here was made in 1839, and the place was incorporated in 1869. Pop. (1910) 3,926.

Sycophant, in ancient Greece, primarily an informer who gave notice of non-payment of dues owed to the state, in the hope of being rewarded by the state or bought off by his victims; hence the word has a secondary sense

583

of 'blackmailer.' By the Attic orators it is used as a general term of abuse, the main idea being that of dishonest truckling to the people; hence its modern use, as a base flatterer.

Sydenham, residential district, Surrey, England, 64 m. s. of London. Here is the Crystal Palace, a much-frequented place of amusement in ornamental grounds of over 200 ac. The building (removed here) is that in which the first International Exhibition (1851) was held in Hyde Park.

Sydenham, THOMAS (1624-89), English physician, born at Wynford Eagle, Dorset. From the outbreak of the Civil War till the surrender of Oxford, Sydenham served with the parliamentary forces. He commenced practice in London about 1660. Among his intimate friends he numbered Locke and Boyle. Sydenham introduced the cooling regimen for the treatment of smallpox. In 1666 he published Methodus Curandi Febres (augmented as Observationes Medica, 1676). His Opera Omnia Medica appeared 1685 (best ed. 1716). The Sydenham Society was named after him. See Johnson's Life of Sydenham (1742), and Picard's Sydenham, sa Vie et ses Euvres (1889).

Sydney, tn., cap. of New South Wales, Australia, is charmingly situated on the s. shore of Port Jackson; on all sides the waters of the harbor encircle the city, and the quays and wharves are over 23 m. in extent, and permit the loading and discharging of vessels of the largest tonnage. The city is 4 m. from the Pacific. There are six islands in the harbor-Clark, a pleasure resort; Shark, the quarantine station; Garden, the property of the imperial government, with hospital, foundries, shears, and naval stores; Goat, with powder magazine; Spectacle, for explosives; and Cockatoo, at the mouth of the Parramatta R., with a government dock. There are many bays, the principal being Watson's Bay, Chowder, Taylor's, Athol Bight, Mossman's, Careening Cove, Neutral, Lavender, Berry's, Iron Cove, Snail's, Johnstone's, Woolloomooloo, Elizabeth, Rushcutter's, Double, Rose, Parseley's, and Hen and Chickens Bay. Darling Harbor wharf, at southwestern end of the city, is also important. Many of the streets are narrow, tortuous, and without any pretensions to modern architecture. Of late years, however, some of the older portions of the city have been swept away, in some cases to make way for business establishments of modern design. The university is a fine sandstone building in the Gothic style. The City Bank and the

Syenite

Australian Joint Stock Bank are two of the handsomest buildings in Australia. Government House (Tudor style) overlooks Farm Cove, and is surrounded by the Domain and Botanic Gardens. St. Andrew's Cathedral, near the town hall, is a fine Gothic edifice. St. Mary's Cathedral (Roman Catholic) is a handsome building (1900). The town hall is of vast size, and possesses a very fine organ. The industries include coach factories, foundries, engineering works, and cloth mills. Queen Victoria Markets are a special feature of interest. Sydney has excellent parks and gardens-Hyde Park (40 acres), the Domain (138 acres), Botanical Gardens (38 acres), and Prince Alfred, Belmore, Callan, Moore, and Wentworth Parks. Pop. of city proper (1901) 111,801; including suburbs 488,382.

Sydney, city, N. S., Canada, co. seat of Cape Breton co., on the N.E. shore of Cape Breton I., 19 m. N.W. by N. of Louisburg, at the head of Sydney Harbor, and at the E. terminus of the Intercolonial R. R. It has large coal interests. A railroad connects it with the coal mines in the near vicinity. The harbor is excellent, and the city is a shipping port of the Dominion Coal Co. There are large steel and iron works, blast and hearth furnaces, cement works, machine shop, tannery, planing mills, coal-washing plant, coke ovens, foundry, tar and chemical works, and wood-working factories. Market gardening and sheep raising are carried on. Noteworthy institutions and buildings are a public library, Convent of Holy Angels, which does high school work, St. Anthony's Home for Orphans, Marine Hospital, Brooklands Hospital, supported by the Dominion Iron and Steel Co., and a hospital for infectious diseases, city hall, and county court house. The place was first settled in 1784, and incorporated as a town in 1886. A city charter was granted in 1904. Pop. (1911) 17,617.

Sydney, ALGERNON. See SIDNEY, ALGERNON.

Sydney Mines, tn., Cape Breton co., N. S., Canada, 7 m. N.N.W. of Sydney, on the N. shore of Sydney Harbor, and on the Intercolonial R. R. It manufactures steel and has large coal interests. The coal is mined in the vicinity and shipped from Sydney Harbor. General farm produce is raised. The town was incorporated in 1889. Pop.(1911) 7,464.

Syene, ancient name for Assouan, Egypt.

Syenite, a granitoid, crystalline, igneous rock, consisting of orthoclase feldspar, with hornblende, augite, or mica, differing

Sykes

from granite chiefly in the lack of quartz. The name is derived from Syene in Egypt. Typical representatives of this group are of considerable importance in Saxony, Norway, Sutherlandshire (Scotland), the W. Alps, and Canada. The Norwegian augite syenites (known as Laurvikites) are used as ornamental building stones and for monumental purposes. The augite syenites of Tyrol are known as Monzonites. In Norway, Finland, Portugal, Canada, Arkansas, Brazil, Madagascar, S. India, and Greenland, nepheline syenites

Occur.

Sykes, GEORGE (1822-80), American soldier, born in Dover, Del. He graduated at West Point in 1842; served in the Mexican War and was brevetted captain for 'gallant and meritorious conduct in the battle of Cerro Gordo; and afterwards had much service on the frontier. He fought in the battle of Bull Run; was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers to date from September 28, 1861; served with distinction in the Peninsula campaign and at Manassas and Antietam; and was promoted major-general of. volunteers to date from November 29, 1862. He afterwards fought at Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and Rappahannock Station, but in April, 1864, was transferred to the department of Kansas. In 1868 he was appointed colonel of the 20th infantry.

Sylhet, chief tn. of Sylhet dist., in the Surma valley, Assam, India, 50 m. s. of Shillong. Pop. (1901) about 15,000.

Sylla. See SULLA.

Syllabus Errorum (List of Errors'), a document appended to the encyclical Quanta Cura, issued by Pope Pius IX. on Dec. 8, 1864. It contains a list of eighty heresies and religious errors, and the corresponding truths as their antidote. It is divided into ten sections, which condemn (1) rationalism, pantheism, and naturalism; (2) free thought of any kind; (3) latitudinarianism; (4) secret societies, such as freemasonry, together with communism and socialism; (5) opposition to the rights of the church; (6) errors on the condition of society; (7) on ethics; (8) on the law of marriage; (9) errors as to the temporal power of the pope; (10) the errors of liberalism. The infallibility of the pope is assumed, as is also the inalienable right of the church to control education, the issue of literature from the press, and the conclusions of the scientific. has been some discussion among Roman Catholics as to whether the syllabus is to be considered as uttered ex cathedrâ, and to be regarded as de fide. See Schaff's

There

585

Creeds of Christendom, vol. ii. (1877), PP. 213-233; W. E. Gladstone's Vatican Decrees in their Bearing on Civil Allegiance (1874), and Vaticanism (1875); John Henry Newman's Letters to the Duke of Norfolk (1875).

Syllogism, the type or general form, which Aristotle was the first to analyze, of those elementary processes of reasoning into a series of which more complex reasonings can be resolved. Each such unit-process or syllogism must consist of two premises, together with the conclusion which they prove. For, to prove a predicate of a subject, we must have some connecting notion or 'middle term' within which both are related: for example, we may argue that a man is responsible for his actions on the ground that he is a free agent. Here the premises are Free agents are responsible for their actions,' and 'Man is a free agent,' and the conclusion follows, 'Man is responsible,' etc. Free agency is our middle term for connecting man's action with responsibility.

Sylph, in old poetic mythology, an elemental spirit of the air, holding an intermediate place between material and immaterial beings, according to the system of Paracelsus. Sylphs are of both sexes, with many human characteristics, and are mortal, but do not possess a soul.

Sylt, largest isl. of N. Frisian group, belonging to Prussian prov. Schleswig-Holstein; visited in summer (May to September) for sea-bathing, the principal resort being Westerland, on w. coast. Area, 38 sq. m. Pop. 3,000.

Sylva, CARMEN. See ELIZABETH (Queen of Roumania).

the

Sylvester I., bishop of Rome, 314-335, the principal event of whose pontificate was the Council of Nicæa (325), which defined the articles of the Christian faith, and also determined the order of the hierarchy in the various provinces of the empire. The epistles and decretals attributed to Sylvester are now considered apocryphal. See Döllinger's Fable Respecting the Popes in Middle Ages (Eng. trans., 1872).— SYLVESTER II., pope, 999-1003, whose original name was Gerbert, was born at Aurillac in Auvergne about 950; became the head of the abbey of Bobbio (970), and afterwards archbishop of Ravenna. He is said to have introduced Arabic numerals, and to have invented clocks.-SYLVESTER III,, antipope, 1044, bishop of Sabina, was proclaimed pope in opposition to Benedict Ix. He reigned only about three months.

Sylvester, JAMES JOSEPH (1814-97), one of the most eminent of English mathematicians, was born in London, September

Sylvius

3, 1814. As a Jew he was unable to take his baccalaureate degree in the University of Cambridge, where he won high honors as an undergraduate student of St. Johns College. In later life honors were awarded him by many universities and learned societies of Great Britain and the Continent. He had also the distinction of becoming, in 1883, Savilian Professor of Mathematics in the University of Oxford in succession to Professor Henry Smith. Twice he held academic posts in the U. S., first in 1841, as professor in the University of Virginia, where his stay was brief but memorable; and next, from 1876 onward, as professor in the Johns Hopkins University of Baltimore, where for seven years he was a fertile contributor to mathematical science. Here he established the American Journal of Mathematics, which at once became the leading repository of American contributions to mathematical science. Only one independent volume bears his name as author, The Laws of Verse, in which, with learning and wit, he considers the mathematics of poetical forms. For the Baltimore period of his life, see Gilman's Launching of a University. The summary in the Dictionary of National Biography is especially commendable.

Sylvester, JOSHUA (1563-1618), English translator, was born in Kent, and became known by his translations from the French of Du Bartas and others, and Prince Henry made him (c. 1606) a groom of his chamber. In 1613 he became secretary to the Merchant Adventurers. See Du Bartas, his Divine Weekes and Works (1598; 1641, with Posthumi), a work very popular with the New England Puritans as well as those of Old England. Collected Works, ed. A. B. Grosart (1878).

Sylviculture. See FORES

René Moreau's Vita Sylvii prefixed to the Opera.

Symbiosis, a term first employed by De Bary for the very intimate and mutually beneficial partnerships which often occur between organisms, especially between plants and animals, or between two kinds of plants. In commensalism the union is much less intimate. The historic case of symbiosis is that of the lichens, but quite as well defined is the partnership between radiolarians and the so-called 'yellow cells,' which are really symbiotic algæ. Here the host gains starch from the algae, which in their turn receive carbon dioxide, and nitrogenous waste products. Among plants one of the most interesting cases of symbiosis discovered in recent years is that of the bacteria which form nodules or tubercles on the roots of leguminous plants and enable these to utilize the free nitrogen of the soil.

Symbolism. A symbol is a sign, and differs from an antetype, which is a prefigurement of something or some one to come afterwards; and from an allegory, which is a figurative description. The symbol is always an object, and suggests something higher than appears to the eye.

The

American-Indian totem-pole is an example of the symbolic treatment of tribal and family descent. All writing is symbolic. Symbolism is the language of heraldry; but it has had its widest range in connection with religion. It is to be found in its rudest form in Africa and the islands of the Australian archipelago. Elaborate symbolic designs are carved on the monuments of Central America. The phallus as a symbol of reproductive powers has wide use, while the swastika is found in all quarters of the world as a religious symbol, though its meaning is as yet undetermined, and it is often regarded as one form of the cross. Symbolism played a great part in the worship of the Old Testament and in the structure of the Jewish temple. The early Christians no doubt used symbolic designs on rings and seals, as the fish, the dove, the palm branch, the anchor, and were thus enabled to know one another without betraying themselves to their persecutors. From the 3d to the 8th century the carvings and frescoes of the catecombs supply abundant examples of early Christian imagery. Nearly every detail in Christian archítecture, and every article of church furniture and ecclesiastical vestment is symbolically significant. Christ is depicted as the Good Shepherd, and a unicorn stands for purity and strength, or from its solitary habits it is the symbol of monastic life. The Virgin has no symbol in early monuments;

nor is the crucifix to be found until the 5th century. Until the 11th century any representation of Christ on the cross was wholly symbolic, being always clothed, and probably robed and crowned as high priest and king. Later still the robe was removed, but the kingly crown remained. The present

realistic form of the crucifix is of quite late date. The Holy Spirit was sometimes depicted in human form, from the 10th century till the 17th, when Urban VIII. forbade the practice, and the dove has since been used as the appropriate symbol. The First Person in the Trinity, often treated as a man by the later painters, has no symbol, though the triangle often represents the trinity and the circle deity. See Clement's Handbook of Legendary and Mythological Art (1881); Knight's Symbolic Language of Ancient Art and Mythology (1876); Evans's Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Architecture (1896); H. D. M. Spence, White Robe of Churches (1900); and W. Durandus, Symbolism of Churches (1906).

Symbols. (1.) Chemical symbols, as a means of expressing briefly the facts of chemical composition and action, were introduced by Dalton. The atoms of each element were represented by a circle, with some distinguishing mark, such as a cross, dot, or letter, while compounds were denoted by a cluster of these circles representing the atoms present: thus hydrogen was ; carbon,; sulphur dioxide, OO. These devices were soon superseded by a simpler method initiated by Berzelius, which has remained practically unchanged till to-day. According to this system the atoms of the elements are symbolized by the initial letter or letters of the English or Latin name, these being combined to make the formula for the compounds, and provided with suffixes to show the number of atoms present. Thus N represents 1 atom of nitrogen, Ag (argentum) 1 atom of silver, AgCl the composition of silver chloride, and Al2(SO4)3 that of aluminium sulphate. (See ELEMENTS for a full list.) AgCl states not only that silver chloride contains silver and chlorine, but that they are united in the proportion of 107.9 parts by weight of silver to 35.45 parts of chlorine, and so on. Symbols for molecules also express the volume relations of the substances when in the state of gas, as, in accordance with Avogadro's hypothesis, equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules, whatever their kind. For example, if the relative weights are expressed in gram proportions, each gram molecule occu

pies 22.22 liters when at standard temperature and pressure: thus N2, HCI, NH3, if taken in grams -i.e. 28 grams of nitrogen, 36.45 grams of hydrogen chloride, and 17 grams of ammonia-all occupy 22.22 liters. To express chemical actions, symbols are combined into equations in which the symbols of the substances taken are written on the left-hand side and the symbols of the products on the right. Thus, Zn + H2SO, =ZnSO4 + H2 represents the fact that on putting zinc with sulphuric acid they react in the proportion of 65.4 parts by weight of the former to 98 of the latter, yielding 161.4 parts of zinc sulphate and 2 parts by weight of hydrogen, and that for every 65.4 grams of zinc a volume of 22.22 liters of hydrogen is obtained. In any case it must be remembered that symbols may only be arranged to represent facts, and that compounds must not be expected to exist or actions to happen in accordance with the infinite number of arrangements into which chemical symbols may be manipulated.

(2.) Arithmetical and Algebraic.plus, addition; positive, of direction, rotation, electricity, magnetism, etc., or of quantity in general; compressive, of stresses. +ve positive. minus, subtraction; negative of direction, rotation, electricity, magnetism, or of quantity in general; tensile of stresses. ve negative. equality; a b, a is equal to b.is identically equal to. X mult., multiplied by. div., divided by; a/b or

a

=

b means a divided by b.

.. therefore. . because. is to. :: as. If a:b:: c: d, or a/b = cid, then ad bc. V square root. cube root. Va („th root of a)

as; .. y a -means 'therefore y varies inversely as x.' In such a case y=m/x, where m is a con

b.

stant. (){}[] brackets. vinculum, denoting that the included quantities are to be taken together. a> b, a is greater than ab, a is less than b. ab, a is not equal to b. ab, a is not greater than b. ab, a is not less than b. a ~ b, the difference between a and b. ab, a is similar to b. ab, a is equal and similar to b. or n! (factorial n) n(n 1) (n 2)... 1. "Pr, permutations of n things at a time. nCr, combinations of n things r at a time., eliminant or determinant (ad - bc).

=

=

, square; as cm., square centimeters. c.c., cubic centimeters.