The total value of the college property is $3,638,722, its endowment $2,207,274, and its income, for 1905, $446,581. In 1906 the students numbered 2,776 and the instructors 205.

Syr Daria. (1.) Province, Russian Central Asia, bounded by Samarkand and Bokhara on the s., and by Khiva and Lake Aral on the w. Area, 194,147 sq. m. Chief town, Tashkend, the capital of the general government of Turkestan. The Syr Daria (daria 'river'), the principal artery of the province, divides it into the Kizil-kum desert (to the w.), and a composite region, partly belonging to

harness making, tailoring, and forging. The chief industrial establishments are cotton-mills, tanneries, distilleries, and manufactories of matches, soap, and candles. The province was gradually conquered by the Russians between 1846 and 1867. Pop. (1897) 1,479,492, about one-half being Kirghiz, and one-seventh Sarts, with Kara-Kalpacks, Uzbegs, and Tajiks. (2.) Also JAXARTES, riv., Russian Central Asia, trib. of Lake Aral, rising in the Terskei Ala-tau range (s.E. of Issik-kul), at 14,530 ft. above sea-level, and flowing S.W. to Khojent, and thence N.W. to the Áral. Its length is 1,700 m. Down to its

the steppe-land of the AralCaspian depression-e.g. the Muyun-kum or Ak-kum and the Kara kum-and partly to the Tian-Shan mountain system (to the E.). The Amu Daria, or Oxus, forms, for about 180 m., part of the s. boundary, and the Chu forms part of the N. boundary. Among the mineral riches are turquoise, silver, gypsum, porphyry, copper, lead, coal, and salt. The chief crops are wheat, barley, millet, and rice; then come rye and oats, cotton and melons, silk and grapes. Over 56 per cent. of the area is waste land, and 41 per cent. pasture land. The domestic industries include weaving, metal working, shoe and

junction with the Kara Daria (near Namangan in Fergana) it has the name of Naryn.

Syria, a country of Asia, known to its original inhabitants as Aram, though this term, in a wider sense, included also Mesopotamia. The name Syrian only differs from Assyria in that the latter has the definite article prefixed; it was first used by Herodotus (c. 450 B.C.). The boundaries of Syria at its fullest extent were the mountain ranges of Amanus and Taurus on the N., the river Euphrates on the E., the Arabian desert on the S.E., and the Mediterranean on the w. In a narrower sense, Syria was bounded on the s.w. and s. by

the ranges of Mt. Libanus and Mt. Hermon, which divided it from Phoenicia and Palestine. That part of Syria which lay between the ranges of Libanus and Anti-Libanus was known as ColeSyria. The chief river was called the Orontes (now Nahr-el-Asi). The inhabitants of Syria were all of the Semitic race. In the earliest times it contained a number of small kingdoms, of which that of Damascus was the most important. During the 8th century B.C. the Assyrian conquest took place; after the downfall of the Assyrian monarchy the country was subject successively to the Babylonian and Persian powers. The victories of Alexander the Great freed it from Persian rule; and in 310 B.C. Seleucus Nicator set up an independent kingdom of Syria (see SELEUCUS), though the districts of Cole-Syria and Palestine at first belonged to Egypt, and their possession was always disputed between the Syrian and Egyptian monarchies. In 64 B.C. Pompey made Syria a Roman province, and it remained part of the Roman empire until its conquest by the Saracens between 632 and 638 A.D. In 1516 it passed into the hands of the Turks. See further at PALESTINE and PHOENICIA.

Syriac Language and Literature. The Aramaic branch of the Semitic linguistic family, which comprises two distinct divisions-East Aramaic and West Aramaic, to the former of which the Syriac belongs-hold an intermediate position between the Assyrian of the cuneiform writings and the Canaanitish (Hebrew and Phoenician) of Palestine. It was spoken by the nomads who ranged the great Arabian desert, and by the settlers on its edge. The western branch included the Biblical and Talmudic Aramaic, Samaritan, Palmyrene, and Nabatean. The eastern branch included Syriac and Mandaan. The Syriac language was spoken in Mesopotamia above Bagdad, and extended thence southwest to about the latitude of Damascus. Despite the great antiquity of both divisions, they differ from each other not more than does the Latin of Ennius from that of Cicero. The western Aramaic presents perhaps a more archaic phonetic system and a more exclusive Semitic vocabulary, while the structural differences are very slight. Syriac betrays far greater Hellenic influence in the adoption of numerous loan - words and phrases, and even some formative elements, besides many particles, such as ἀλλὰ γὰρ, μὲν, etc., and a normal shifting of the accent from the last syllable to the penultimate. Both use the same

Syriac Language

alphabet of twenty-two letters as the Hebrew, but the forms differ, Aramaic presenting several varieties, such as the graceful Palmyrene, the monumental Estrangelo, and the more cursive later Syriac, with a great poverty of vocalic marks, or else signs modified from the Greek vowels.

From the literary standpoint Aramaic forms three separate groups (1) Aramaic proper, which is essentially a Biblical literature, all its extant remains being either actual Scriptural texts (much of Daniel and Ezra) or paraphrases and explanations of the texts (the Targums) and commentaries on the texts (the Talmud, parts of which are as old as the Targums, but none was committed to writing till about 400-430 A.D.). This traditional Aramaic literature was superseded early in the new era by (2) Syriac, a Christian literature in a pre-eminent sense, all orignal documents dealing exclusively with Christian subjects. The earliest and most important is the Peshito ('pure' or 'simple'), a Syriac version of the Bible made about 200 A.D., nearly the whole of the Old Testament from the Hebrew, and all the New Testament, except the 2d and 3d Epistles of John, the 2d of Peter, Jude, and Revelation, from the Greek texts. Then was developed an extensive Syriac literature, which flourished from the 4th to the 10th century, and is associated with the names of Bardesanes, Isaiah of Arzun, Jacob of Nisibis, and, above all, Ephraem the Syrian, besides Narses of Edessa, Jacob of Serug, Xenaias, Philoxenus, Thomas of Harkel, Jacob of Edessa, Moses Bar Cepha, Bar Hebræus, and others mentioned and often carelessly edited by Assemani in his Bibliotheca Orientalis. This literature consisted largely of early translations of the Greek fathers and of some classic authors, and from these Syriac translations, and not from the original texts, most of the Arabic versions of the Greek works were made by Syrian writers, the Syriac literature thus merging in the Arabic, by which it was replaced about the 10th century. After the Council of Ephesus (431 A.D.) the Syrian missionaries, who adhered to the heresy of Nestorius, carried their teachings and their language into the Kurdistan highlands, into Southern India (Malabar) where the Nestorian ritual still survives-and into the heart of China, as attested by the bilingual (Syro-Chinese) inscription (781 A.D.), preserved in a Buddhist temple at Si-ngan-fu, former capital of the Middle Kingdom. Syriac survives among the Catholic Maronites of the Lebanon, not as the vernacular,

593

for all speak Arabic, but as the liturgical language in which, by papal dispensation, they are permitted to celebrate mass according to the Latin rite. There are or were three variants, as specified by Gregory Bar Hebræus-the standard Syriac of Edessa and Mesopotamia, that of Damascus and the Lebanon, and the corrupt variety of the Kurdistan and Lake Urmia districts, the last written in a locally modified form of the Estrangelo script. More distinct and more debased are the dialects of group (3), which may be described as pagan or semipagan literature. There are two marked varieties - Nabatean, which inclines more to Western Aramaic, and is represented by a treatise on agriculture of unknown date with an Arabic version of the 10th century; and Mandaic, in which is written the post-Islamic Book of Adam. Mandaic confuses the characteristic Semitic gutturals, which are often elided, interchanges surds and sonants, and shows numerous contracted forms. See Brockelmann's Lexicon Syriacum (1895); J. Payne Smith's Compendious Syriac Dictionary (1903); Duval's Traité de grammaire syriaque (1881); Nestle's Syriac Grammar (1889); Maclean's Grammar of the Dialects of Vernacular Syriac (1898); and Dictionary of the Dialects of Vernacular Syriac (1901); W. Wright's Short History of Syriac Literature (1894); E. Renan's Hist. des Langues Semitiques (3d ed. 1863); Noeldeke's Semitische Sprachen (1887).

Syrian Protestant College. An undenominational institution at Beirut, Syria, opened in 1866 and incorporated in 1869, for the higher education of young men of Syria and other countries. It has seven departments: preparatory, collegiate, commerce, medicine and pharmacy, biblical archæology and philology, and a training school for nurses in connection with the Maria De Witt Jesup Hospitals. The degrees conferred are bachelor of arts, bachelor of commerce, doctor of medicine and master of pharmacy. The college is controlled by a board of twelve trustees in New York, by which state it is chartered. All instruction is given in the English language, except in the departments of Arabic, Turkish, and French. The students in 1906 numbered 760, mainly Syrians, but including 100 Egyptians, 84 Armenians, and 75 Greeks. The college had 60 officers of administration and instruction, a library of 15,000 volumes, buildings and grounds valued at $500,000, an endowment of $600,000, and an income of $720,000.

Syringa, a genus of hardy deciduous shrubs belonging to

Common Forms of Syringe.

then, by pushing the piston back toward the nozzle, its contents may be ejected.

Syrinx, in ancient Greek legend, a nymph of Arcadia, whom Pan pursued. She took refuge in the River Ladon and prayed to be changed into a reed, of which Pan made his pipe.

Syrlin, JÖRG, German woodcarver of the 15th century. He is known as the Elder, to distinguish him from his son of the same name, who also attained eminence as a carver. He executed the fine carvings on the stalls of Ulm Cathedral (1469-74),

and the antiquarian society of that city possesses a singing-chair made by him (1458). He also executed the carving on the fountain in the market-place at Ulm.

Syros. See SYRA.

Syrtes, two deep and broad gulfs on the N. coast of Africa, famous in antiquity for their dangerous shallows and sunken rocks. The E. or greater Syrtis is now called the Gulf of Sidra (E. of Tripoli), the w. or smaller the Gulf of Cabes (E. of Tunis).

Syrup, a term applied to concentrated sugar solutions of a more or less viscous character, and by analogy to other liquids of a similar consistency. In pharmacy the name is given to watery solutions of drugs flavored with sugar. See SUGAR.

See

Syrus. See PUBLILIUS SYRUS. Syrus, EPHRAEM. EPHRAEM SYRUS.

Syssitia, at ancient Sparta, the common meal at which every citizen had to attend. Each man had to pay his own share of the expenses; those who could not do so lost the full privileges of citizenship. The company was divided into tables of fifteen persons, election to which was by ballot; one adverse vote excluded. The principal dish was black broth. A similar system obtained in Crete, where the meals were called andreia.

Syzigy, the position of the moon at conjunction or opposition. The line of the syzigies is the diameter of the lunar orbit connecting these points. At new and at full moon the sun, earth, and moon are approximately ranged along it.

Syzran, tn. and episc. see, Simbirsk gov., E. Russia, on r. bk.

of Volga, 78 m. s. of Simbirsk. The cathedral dates from the 18th century. There are tanneries, iron and tallow foundries, distilleries, breweries, dye works, brick works, and manufactures of agricultural machinery. Pop. (1897) 33,046.

Szabadka, Ger. MARIA-THERESIOPEL, or simply THERESIOpel, tn., Bács-Bodrog co., Hungary, 109 m. by rail s.S.E. of Budapest. Great numbers of live-stock are raised in the district. The place has considerable trade and is noted for the breeding of turkeys. Lake Palics, in the vicinity, is a popular summer resort. Pop. (1901) 82,122.

Szalay, LÁSZLÓ, or LADISLAS (1813-64), Hungarian historian, was born at Budapest. His participation in the revolution of 1848-9 compelled him to take refuge in Switzerland, where he wrote History of Hungary (6 vols. 1850-60); The Book of Statesmen (1847-52), containing studies of Pitt, Fox, Mirabeau, and others; and a Life of Count Nicholas Esterhazy (1862-6). See memoir, in German, by Flegler (1866),

Szarvas, comm., co. Békés, Hungary, on the 1. bk. of the Körös, 13 m. by rail s. of Mezötúr; is famed for its horse fairs. Pop. (2900) 25,773.

Szatmár-Németi, tn., co. Szatmár, Hungary, on the r. bk. of the Szamos, 38 m. by rail w.N.W. of Nagybánya; is a Roman Catholic bishopric, manufactures pottery, and has weaving. Pop. (1900) 26,881.

Sze-chuen, prov., W. China, lying N. of the Yang-tse-kiang. The eastern portion is among the richest and most productive in China; from the color of its

soil it has been named by Richthofen the Red Basin. The capital, Ching-tu, is the centre of a vast scheme of irrigation formed about 250 B.C. Distribution of produce is facilitated by numer ous navigable rivers. Rice, wheat, pulse, tobacco, Indian corn, and sugar are the chief crops. Opium, silk, white wax, wood oil, safflower, rhubarb, and musk are the principal exports. Iron and coal are widely distributed; salt wells in some places are bored to a depth of over 2,000 ft. Gold washings in the w. are numerous. Except in cotton, the province is self-sufficing. Access to it is only obtained up the Yang-tse-kiang rapids or through the Min Mts. by a road cut from Shen-si (on the N.). The Lolo people are almost entirely independent, and the Man-nya-ka, Solos, and others are little interfered with. Area, 218,500 sq. m. Pop. (1902) 68,724,800.

Szegedin, tn., cap. of co. Csongrád, Hungary, at the influx of the Maros into the Theiss, 74 m. by rail S.S.E. of Budapest. Since the disastrous floods of 1879, when 2,000 people lost their lives, the rebuilt town has been protected by a circular dam. Szegedin manufactures soap and cloth and builds ships. Pop. (1900) 102,991.

Szentes, tn., co. Csongrád, Hungary, on the 1. bk. of a branch of the Theiss, 30 m. N.E. of Szegedin. Pop. (1900) 31,308.

Szolnok, tn., co. Szolnok, Hungary, on the r. bk. of the Theiss, 58 m. E.S.E. of Budapest; manufactures linen thread and machinery. It was the scene of a victory by the Hungarians over the Austrians on March 5 1849. Pop. (1900) 25,379.

T is the voiceless point stop: the breath is stopped by the point of the tongue. The tongue may Occupy a whole series of positions -e.g. interdental (French), postdental (English), or still higher up (Semitic ); a whole series of t sounds is in this way possible. The early Semitic alphabet distinguished two of the series; the Greeks took one to represent their t, and transferred the other, e, to denote th.

Th in English is commonly used to denote two different sounds-spirant (think,' 'thigh') and spirant d (thee,' thy'). As a phonetic symbol th should represent spirant only; dh may be employed for spirant d. Dh is a voiced th, as d'is a voiced t, and the sound th often passes into dh ('path,' 'paths').

T combined with i shows a general tendency to become a sibilant; tion in English has become shon ('motion'). In such words as 'nature,' u is a diphthong commencing with i, and is apt to pass into tsh.

Semitic taw, Greek tau, means 'mark.' The early form X, a cross, is apparently connected with the name; T is a simple modification of it; the modern written forms provide the student of writing with instructive variations. retains the lower part of X. The early form of Semitic teth is a cross surrounded by a circle, hence 0. It is probably a modification of taw; the meaning of the name is unknown.

Taaffe, EDUARD FRANZ JOSEPH, COUNT (1833-95), Austrian statesman, was born at Prague. In 1867 he became minister of the interior and the mouthpiece of the court party. He was president of the cabinet (1868-70). Afterward Taaffe was repeatedly in and out of power; he steadily aimed at gaining the confidence of the Slav nationalities, and succeeded during several years in holding together for his purposes a majority of the Austrian parliament. He showed great tact in dealing with men, and a geniality of manner possibly inherited from his Irish ancestry. In 1893 he resigned. See Memoirs of the Family of Taaffe (1856).

Taal. (1.) Pueb., Batangas prov., Luzon, Philippines, 13 m. N.W. of Batangas. There are extensive sulphur deposits in the district. Pop. (1903) 17,525. (2.) Volcano, Central Luzon, Philippines, situated in lake of same name, on Bombón I. It is composed of volcanic rock and lava,

T

has an oval crater, greatest diameter 7,667 ft., height 1,067 ft. above the lake. Six eruptions occurring in the 18th century are recorded. The last two were in 1808 and 1873.

Taal, the name given to the patois spoken by the Dutch in South Africa; it may be described as a degenerate form of the language of the first settlers from Holland. The alphabet possesses only twenty letters, and there are few grammatical rules; the vocabulary also is small. A purer form of Dutch, often also called Taal, is spoken by the educated classes, and an attempt is being made to have it generally taught in the schools.

Tabaco, pueb., Albay prov., Luzon, Philippines, on Tabaco Bay, E. coast. An important trade with Manila is carried on. Pop. (1903) 21,946.

Tabard, a garment of rough material formerly worn by the poorest persons. The name was also applied to an outer garment, loose and sleeveless, worn by knights above their armor. Tabard is now a coat worn only by heralds. The Tabard in was a famous hostelry in old London, situated in High Street, Southwark. Its sign was a tabard. It was from this inn that Chaucer describes his pilgrims as setting out for the shrine of Thomas à Becket at Canterbury.

Tabari, ABU JA'FAR MOHAMMED BEN JARIR AT-TABARI (838922), Persian historian, author of a most valuable chronicle, Annales quos scripsit at-Tabari (ed. De Goeie, 1879-92). A German translation of that part of the chronicle which affects the Sasanian period of Persian history has been published by Nöldeke (1879) as Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sassaniden. Tabari also wrote a commentary on the Koran. His chronicle was continued by Arib ben Sa'd of Cordova.

Tabasco, state, Mex., on the s. side of the Gulf of Mexico, bounded on the E., S., and w. by Campeche, Chiapas, and Santa Cruz. Area, 10,072. It is a low, flat region subject to floods, and considerable tracts are covered with fores... The staples are coffee, cacao, rice, maize, sugar cane, and vanilla. The capital is San Juan de Bautista. Frontera is also an important town. Pop. (1910) 183,708.

Tabashir, or TABASHEER, a white, siliceous secretion found in the joints of certain bamboos

and grasses. It is used in the E. Indies as a tonic and astringent medicine. By fusion it is convertible into a transparent glass.

Tabb, JOHN BANISTER (1845), American clergyman and poet, was born in Amelia co., Va., was educated privately, and took service on a blockade runner during the Civil War. He was captured, and made the acquaintance of Sidney Lanier, while a prisoner, gaining from him his inclination for metrical composition. After the war he became a Roman Catholic, graduated (1875) at St. Charles College, Ellicott City, Md., and after several years of teaching was ordained priest in 1884, remaining on the teaching staff of the college. His sweet and melodious lyrical verse has been collected as Poems (1884), An Octave to Mary (1893), Lyrics (1897), Poems Grave and Gay (1899), and Later Lyrics (1906).

Tabernacle, the movable sanctuary of the Israclites in the wilderness, according to the 'priestly' source of the Hexateuch; it was made according to a divine pattern given to Moses (Exod. 25 ff.). It was an oblong tent, thirty cubits long, ten in breadth and height, having a wooden framework and a covering of tapestry and skins, and was divided into the Holy of Holies, a cube of ten cubits, containing the ark, and the Holy Place, in which stood the table of shewbread, the golden candlestick, and the altar of incense. Round the whole was the court of the tabernacle, a hundred cubits by fifty, containing the altar of burnt offering and the laver. The purely ideal character of this structure has been fully proved (1) from the fact that the materials could not have been obtained or transported under the circum stances; (2) the other earlier Hexateuchal sources, E and J, know nc such structure; (3) the historians before the chronicler knew nothing of it. The tabernacle of Roman Catholic churches is a receptacle used for the reservatior of the eucharistic elements. Sec Wellhausen's Prolegomena, pp. 405 sq. (1885); I. Benzinger in Hasting's Dictionary of the Bible, Caldecott's The Tabernacle, its History and Structure (1904). For feast of tabernacles, see FEAST.

Tabes Dorsalis. See LocoMOTOR ATAXIA.

Tablature, the system of musical notation used for the lute. In the usual method the six higher strings of the instrument were represented by six horizontal

lines, each named after the note to which the corresponding string was tuned. Letters or Arabic numerals placed on the lines indicated the frets to be used in the production of the notes, the

596

Tabriz

Bough (ed. 1900), vol. i., at the end of which volume there is a long and instructive note on 'Taboos on Common Words.' See Van Gennep's Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar (1904).

Tabor, a small drum, usually played with one stick, in accom

Music with Voice Part and Tablature for the Lute.

duration of the latter being shown by minims, crotchets, etc., placed over the signs.

Tableaux Vivants ('living pictures'), the representation by means of living persons of scenes from history or fiction, and of works of painting and sculpture. Their invention is ascribed to Madame de Genlis.

Table-land. See PLATEAU.

Table Mountain, or TAFELBERG (3,550 ft.), rises to the s. of Cape Town, Cape Colony, with an abrupt ascent from the s. side of Table Bay, and sloping toward the s. The level nature of the strata gives it its table-like appearance, fancifully increased when the dense white clouds (the 'tablecloth') hang over it, especially in summer.

Table-turning, the turning of a table under the finger-tips, ranged round its edge, of persons surrounding it, the movement being formerly ascribed to the agency of spirits. The name is used also to cover the kindred phenomena of spirit-rapping-i.e. the rapping by alleged spirits on furniture, walls, ceiling. Beginning in the U. S. about 1848, tableturning was often practised as a social pastime. By Faraday, in England, and other scientific investigators, the phenomenon has been accounted for by the involuntary mechanical muscular action of the performers. SPIRITUALISM.

See

Tabley, BARON. See DE TAB

LEY.

Taboo, TABU, TAMBU, or TAPU (the last being the most correct spelling), a complicated Polynesian system of prohibitions, formulated by the priesthood. In many instances the dominant motive is purification; in others the taboo is nothing more than an enactment for preventing the extinction of a certain animal. Among the Maoris any infringement of the laws of taboo is believed to be followed by the death of the transgressor at the hands of

tabooed place.

shark.

Taboo results also from a feeling of reverence for the dead. The Zulus, for example, always use descriptive names in speaking of their dead kings. The actual name is tabooed (hlonipa). 'Then there is the Gypsy system of tabu,' remarks F. H. Groome (Gypsy Folk-Tales, p. lxxiii.), 'by which wife and child renounce forever the favorite food or drink of the dead husband or father, or the name of the deceased is dropped clean out of use, any survivors who happen to bear it adopting another.' The many forms of taboo recognized by the Jews are given in detail in the Mosaic law. There, again, the reasons were various. The temporary taboo laid by the priest upon a man suspected of incipient leprosy (Lev. 13) was a purely medical precaution. On the other hand, the taboo laid upon a woman who had just borne a child, the particulars of which varied according to the sex of the child (Lev. 12), was based upon the belief, common to many races, that childbirth rendered a woman 'unclean.' The 'network of prohibitions and observances' with which kings frequently used to be surrounded owes its origin to the fact that kings were believed to be supernatural beings, whose every action affected the lives and welfare of their people. This question of 'royal taboos' is examined by Dr. J. G. Frazer in his Golden

Tabor and Pipe.

paniment to the pipe, both instruments being often played by the same performer.

Tabor. (1.) Town, Bohemia, Austria, 65 m. by rail s. of Prague, the former stronghold of the Hussites. It is still in part surrounded by the walls which Zizka built in 1420. Tobacco, beer, and flour are produced. Pop. (1900) 10,692. (2.) Mountain in Galilee (1,800 ft.), the traditional scene of the transfiguration of Christ, and an object of pious pilgrimage.

Tabora, tn., German E. Africa, in the heart of Unyamwezi, 220 m. E. of Ujiji (Lake Tanganyika), an ivory emporium. Pop. 16,000.

Tabor College. A Congregational institution of learning for both sexes at Tabor, Iowa, first opened as an academy in 1857 and incorporated as a college in 1866. It was modelled on Oberlin College, and was founded by a company of missionaries who moved to western Iowa in 1852. The college courses are arranged in classical, modern language, Latinmathematics, preparatory legal, and preparatory medical groups, all leading to the B.A. degree. There are in addition an academy, a conservatory of music, and an art department. The student registration in 1905 was 167, with a faculty of 14. In that year the college had a library of 13,300 volumes, productive funds of $88,000 and an income of $17,000.

Taborites. See HUSSITES.

Tabriz, tn., prov. Azerbaijan, N. W. Persia, 40 m. E. of Lake Urmia. It was built (791) by the wife of Haroun-al-Raschid, and is the most important commercial centre of N. W. Persia. Exports are dry fruit, raisins, cotton, carpets. The total trade probably exceeds $5,000,000 annum. Two important features are the blue mosque and a famous tower built by Greeks. Pop. 200,000.

per