Sculpture statues. Pisani, and their followers, Della Quercia, Orcagna, and Giotto. It grew out of the Gothic love of realistic treatment of living forms, and the awakening of the sense of Greek beauty of form and balance, owing to the discovery of Greek sarcophagi and These sculptors decorated the great cathedrals-Pisa, Siena, Orvieto, Giotto's Tower at Giovanni Pisano inFlorence. troduced a dramatic element into his work; in the 15th century Ghiberti forsook the severe limits of plastic art, in his bronze gates at Florence, and introduced pictorial elements of perspective and architectural backgrounds into his reliefs. To this period also belong the realists and anatomical artists, Verrocchio, Pollaijuolo, the pietist Mina da Fiesole, and the Della Robbia family, whose ceramics brought art within the sympathetic underWith standing of the people. Donatello Christian Renaissance reached its purest developmentnoble controlled expression of Christian fervor embodied in the fine restrained form of Greek art. In the 16th century Giovanni Bologna and Benvenuto Cellini produced fine statues and portrait- busts in marble and bronze; and, finally, Michael Angelo, the Titan of the Renaissance, is the last great exponent of medieval Christianity and the herald of modern sculpture, inasmuch as he introduced the new element of the struggle of man with destiny, of his anguish under the passing of material conditions, the wrestling of spirit freeing itself from ecclesiastical bondage as at the dawn of the Reformation. Thereafter Bernini is the chief figure of the decadence of the 17th century. Canova and his Danish (Icelandic) follower Thorwaldsen are the chief exponents of the pseudo-classicism of the 18th century. In England the introduction of Protestantism was followed by a decline of the plastic arts. Nicholas Stone (d. 1647) carved effigies and tombs under Inigo Jones, and the Dutchman Grinling Gibbons worked under Sir Christopher Wren. In the 18th century Flaxman initiated the classical revival in sculpture; early in the 19th Chantrey was the chief pseudo- classicist. J. Gibson strove to revive polychromatic sculpture. A return to nature was attempted by Westmacott, Wyatt, and Bell. The finest sculptor of the first half of the Victorian era was Alfred Stevens (1817-75), who designed the Wellington memorial in St. Paul's. To a later date belong Sir Edwin Landseer's Lions on Nelson's Monument. In Germany the influence of Statue of General W. T. Sherman, in the Central Park Plaza, New York City. been done by Foley, Alfred Gilbert, Onslow Ford, Thornycroft, Frampton, and Harry Bates, and in Scotland by Pittendrigh Macgillivray and John Tweed, to mention two only of the younger men. In the United States Hiram Powers (1805-73) was the first sculptor who really deserved the name, although William Rush, a ship-carver whose allegorical statue of the Schuylkill River stands in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, and John Frazee, the first native sculptor to make a (By Augustus St. Gaudens.) ton Capitol, and the bronze doors of the Capitol. In connection with work on the Capitol, the eight panels on the door in the rotunda, by Randolph Rogers (1825-92), portraying scenes from the career of Columbus, may also be noted. Thomas Ball (1819) and Henry K. Browne (181486) both succeeded in making equestrian statues that satisfied popular taste, the latter's Washington statue in Union Square, New York city, rising above the average of such work. Larkin J. own. The list of Saint-Gaudens's notable achievements is a long one. His Farragut in Madison Square, Peter Cooper, near the Cooper Union, the equestrian statue of General Sherman at the Central Park entrance, all in New York city; the Shaw Memorial in Boston, the Puritan in Springfield, the figure of Grief in the cemetery at Washington, and the Robert Louis Stevenson medallion, all need mention in any record of American sculptors. Daniel C. French (1850), a Sculpture pupil of Rimmer and Thomas Ball, produced in his relief, Death Stopping the Sculptor's Hand, for the Milmore Memorial in Boston, a work that attracted serious attention, and he has followed it with much good sculpture, such as the Alma Mater on the steps of the Columbia University Library in New York, the Minute Man at Concord, Mass., and John Harvard at Cambridge, of The winning grace Mass. Frederick MacMonnies's (1863) dancing Bacchante, which the Boston Public Library would have none of, and which finally found a resting-place in the Metropolitan Museum of New York, placed him at once in the front rank of the younger American His fountain at the sculptors. Chicago World's Fair of 1893, with its twenty-seven colossal figures, proved him a master of the picturesque, while the Nathan Hale statue in New York's City Hall Park and the Stranahan statue in Brooklyn show that he can do excellent work of a less flamboyant character. John Quincy Adams Ward (1830), to-day the dean of American sculptors, made his first impression with The Freedman (a negro free from his fetters), a work that typified most happily the results of the Civil War. Since that time his statues of Greeley, in New York, Henry Ward Beecher, in Brooklyn, The Pilgrim, in New York's Central Park, and the Washington, in Wall Street, New York, have further enhanced his reputation. Among American sculptors who have distinguished themselves in decorative work are Isidore Konti, Karl Bitter, Philip Martiny, J. Massey Rhind, and Charles Grafly, F. W. Ruckstuhl has done important work at recent expositions and for the new Custom House in New York. Her bert Adams, William O. Partridge, Charles H. Niehaus, and George G. Barnard have also contributed materially to the beauty of many important structures, while Solon H. Borglum and Edward Kemeys have excelled in animal sculpture. See History of Sculpture, by Marquand and Frottingham (1896); Ancient Sculptural Stones of ScotLand, Ireland, and the Isle of Man, by G. J. French (1858); Monumental Effigies of Britain, by Stothard, (1817); British School of Sculpture by W. B. Scott (1872); British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day, by M. H. Spielmann (1901); Renaissance Art in France (1879) and French Sculp tors and Architects of the 18th Century (1900), by Lady Dilke; Peintures et Sculptures Contemporaines, by J. Claretie (1873); Histoire de la Sculpture Française, by 61 Emeric David (1805); Lübke s Sculptured Stones of Scot- Scup, or PORGY. A small sparoid fish (Stenotomus chrysops), allied to and resembling the sheepshead, everywhere numerous along the eastern coast of the U. S. and in the Gulf of Mexico, and much liked for food. Scurf consists of minute epithelial scales formed by portions of the cuticle separated from the body by friction even in health. It is sometimes called furfur, sometimes dandruff. Normally the scalp most markedly exhibits . Scurvy this desquamation of epidermis, to which are added the exuviæ of the hair follicles. a Scurvy, or SCORBUTUS, disease arising from malnutrition, and particularly from lack of fresh meat, fresh vegetables, and fruits in adults and apparently from the use of boiled, or 'humanized,' or sterilized milk in infants. It was at one time very common in ships and in armies, when salted food was used in excess. The disease is marked by very great general debility and muscular weakness. The tissues lose the firmness of health, and in consequence the gums are spongy and bleed, the teeth loosen, and patches of discoloration, due to subcutaneous hæmorrhages, appear over the body and limbs. Lime juice was the first efficient preventive agent furnished to sailors early in the 19th century. Its use is now pulsory in the navies and merchantmen of some countries; it is served daily to each man after being ten days at sea. Treatment is practically confined to the administration of fresh food, of which green vegetables and potatoes should form a large part, together with fresh fruit. The patient must lie quiet, in a severe case, until strength returns, otherwise there will be a risk of heart failure or hæmorrhage on sudden exertion. Recovery is rapid under suitable conditions. com Infantile scurvy ('Barlow's disease') is of much greater frequency. It also arises from an improper diet. The disease is seen principally in children from six to eighteen months old. It is commoner in cities than in country districts, and among moderately well-to-do people than among the very poor, apparently because it has become fashionable to feed children on proprietary foods. Also, in up-to-date households the milk is boiled or sterilized, and there seems no doubt that these processes destroy the anti-scorbutic qualities of milk, The scorbutic child is sallow and fretful before any marked physical signs appear. Later it begins to be sensitive to the touch, particularly about the lower limbs, and, in consequence of the pain caused by movement, will refuse to move or to bear the weight of the legs. Later the limbs swell, the tenderness increasing. There is hæmorrhage under the periosteum, and this not only causes enlargements and pain, but may cause separation of the cartílaginous ends of the growing long bones, such as the thigh bones, from the shafts. If there be many teeth, the gums will be spongy, swollen, and very likely with an offensive discharge. There may be rickets with scurvy, and the latter is often mistaken for rickets; but even a few days of anti-scorbutic diet will generally help to a right diagnosis. Treatment is by reforming the diet. If the child is of a suitable age, a good wet-nurse is the best possible cure. Fresh cow's milk, in suitable proportions with water or barley water, warmed but not boiled, is the next best food. Orange juice (one to two teaspoonfuls twice a day) is most valuable; or lemon juice, if obtainable, should be used instead. Potatoes mashed with milk, fresh meat juice (made by scraping steak to a pulp, mixing it with cold water in the proportion of one part water to four meat, leaving for half an hour, and then straining through fine muslin), and sieved vegetables, such as onions, lettuce and spinach, will render drugs unnecessary. Scurvy Grass, a genus (Cochlearia) of herbaceous plants belonging to the order Cruciferæ. They are characterized by their fruit, which is a globose, twovalved pouch, the valves not flattened. The common scurvy grass (C. officinalis) is an abun Common Scurvy Grass. 1, Petal; 2, flower, section; 3, fruit. dant sea-shore plant, with heartshaped root leaves and oblong stem leaves, bearing large corymbs of white flowers in May. Scutage, a sum of money payable by a knight under the feudal system for his fee by way of commutation for personal service. It was first exacted in 1159, and was restricted by Magna Charta. Scutari. See SKUTARI. belonging to the order Labiatæ. They bear flowers with campanulate, bilabiate calyxes, the upper lip bulging out so as to form a sort of lid or cap over the fruit, and a bilabiate corolla, the lips being unequal. Among the species are the large, blue-flowered S. serrata, and the common S. lateriflora, found in wet places, with blue flowers varying to white. Scutum Sobieski, a small constellation formed by Hevelius; it is situated in a bright part of the Milky Way south of Aquila, and includes the 'Omega' nebula (M 17) and the well-known cluster Messier 11. R. Scuti varies from 4.4 to 9.0 magnitude in about seventy-one days. Scylax, a Greek of the city of Caryanda in Caria, who, according to Herodotus, was sent by Darius Hystaspcs on a voyage of discovery down the Indus into the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. A work is still extant, called the Periplus, ascribed to Scylax; but it is probably the work of a writer of about 350 B.C., edited by Fabricius (1875). Scylla and Charybis. In ancient Greek legend Scylla was a monster, the daughter of Triton or Poseidon, who lived on a rock in the strait of Messina. She had twelve feet, six long necks and heads, armed with three rows of teeth, with which she snatched sailors from vessels which passed too near. At a bowshot distance, under a low rock, Charybdis alternately sucked in and belched forth the water, so that no one could escape. This is Homer's account. The story is typical of the dangers of navigation there,and gave rise to the proverb, 'You fall into Scylla trying to avoid Charybdis.' A later story says the Scylla was a beautiful maiden, who was beloved by the sea-god Glaucus. He asked Circe to give him charms to win her love; but in her jealousy Circe threw magic herbs into the pool in which Scylla used to bathe, so that while above the waist she retained a woman's form, below she was changed into a fish-like shape, encircled by dogs. Ovid gives this account in his Metamorphoses. Seyros, isl. in Egean Sca, E. of Euboea. There Achilles was hidden by his mother to save him from the Trojan War, and there Theseus was killed and buried. In 476 B.C. the Athenians under Cimon conquered Scyros, and brought home the reputed bones of Theseus. It was then a pirate stronghold. Scytale, an ancient Greek contrivance for sending written messages only decipherable by possessors of the key. It was a staff of a peculiar shape, and round it was wound a narrow strip of leather, on which the message was written lengthwise; the strip was then unrolled and sent to the correspondent, who, by rolling it round a similar stick, was able to read it. The scytale was especially employed by the Spartans in their communications between their ephors and generals. Scythia was the name given by the ancient Greeks to the southeast part of modern Europe, between the Carpathians and the Caucasus. The Scythians are described as nomads who lived in wagons; they fought chiefly on horseback. From Herodotus's description of their appearance they seem to have been of Mongolian race; but the tendency of modern authorities is to regard them as Aryans. About 510 B.C. the Persian king Darius attempted to conquer Scythia, but unsuccessfully. In time the_Scythians in the south of modern Russia became cultivators of the soil, and were to some extent influenced by Greek culture from the Greek cities of the region. Eventually they were overcome by the Sarmatians. But another branch of the race invaded Persia late in the 2d century B.C., and established the Indo-Scythian kingdom of Sacastane; and in the following century they invaded India. Sea is commonly used to denote a large area of the ocean, delineated by fairly well-defined land boundaries. Seas occupy about 6 per cent. of the oceanic area. (1.) Where the land is almost continuous, we may speak of midland seas, such as the Mediterranean, Black, and Baltic Seas. (2.) Where the land is continuous only on two or three sides, and the fourth is defined by islands, we have marginal seas, such as the North Sea, Caribbean Sea, and the seas off the east coast of Asia. (3.) Where the land exists on two opposite sides with openings to two larger areas of the ocean on the other two opposite sides we talk of a connecting sea, such as Bering Sea, the Norwegian and Irish Seas; while (4) a variety of this is found in the island-bordered seas of Sulu and other basins of the Malay archipelago. From the point of view of depth we may distinguish the shallow seas over the continental shelf (transgression seas) from the deep, downsunken areas such as the Mediterranean, which have been termed ingression seas. The term sea is used popularly also for a great gulf-e.g. Arabian Sea-and for some salt lakes, such as the Caspian Sea, Sea of Aral, the Dead Sea. See separate articles on the principal oceans and seas; alsc OCEAN. Sea Sea, SOVEREIGNTY OF THE. See SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEA. Sea-anemone, a popular name applied to certain of the solitary members of the Zoantharia, on account of their flower-like appearance. One of the commonest sea-anemones round the coasts of the N. Atlantic is the smooth anemone (Actinia mesembryanthemum), which is attached to rocks and stones between tidemarks. It consists of the base (by which the animal is attached to its support), the upright column, and the free disc (which is surrounded by tentacles, and has the mouth in the centre). Round the base of the tentacles may be observed a row of blue beads, which are really batteries of stinging cells. The tentacles are also furnished with stinging cells, and in some threads called acontia, covered with stinging cells, can be shot out from the sides of the body; some of the very large tropical forms can sting The internal anatomy severely. is complicated. The mouth, for instance, opens into a gullet which hangs down in the general cavity of the body. This general cavity is crossed by a number of partítions or mesenteries, which divide the cavity into a series of chambers. On these mesenteries are placed the reproductive organs, and also tangled threads known as the digestive filaments, which are often protruded when an anemone is damaged in removing it from the rock. The sexes are either separated or united; but, in addition to the sexual method of reproduction, they reproduce asexually by both internal and external budding, or even by a mere rupture of a part of the body, which then grows into a new individual. This is often seen in the plumose anemone (Actinoloba dianthus), a beautiful form common just below low-tide mark. The colors of anemones are very variable, and often very beautiful. In some instances they are of the character described as protective coloration. See Gosse's History of the British Sea-anemones and Corals (1860); and Mayer's Sea-shore Life (1906). Sea-bass, a name sometimes given to food-fishes belonging to the family Percidæ, such as the species of Centropristis, two of which are frequent on the eastern coast of N. America. The term is, however, vague, and often wrongfully applied. Sea-bat, a name given to the species of Platax (fish belonging to the horse-mackerel family) on account of the great elongation of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins. All the species occur in the Indian and W. Pacific Oceans. Sea-bear. See FUR-SEAL. Types of Sea-anemones. 1. Actinia mesembryanthemum. 2. Sagartia bellis. 3. S. coccinea. 4. Actinoloba dianthus. 5. Anthea cercus. 6. Bolocera Tuediæ. 7. Tealia crassicornis. 8. Peachia hastata. white flowers in late spring, and Seabury, SAMUEL (1729-96), year his advocacy of the Loyalist cause obliged him to suspend his ministrations. During the Revolution he practised medicine in New York, and was chaplain of a royal regiment. In 1783 he was elected bishop of Connecticut, but was not immediately consecrated owing to difficulties with the English law. He was conse |