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scholastic period, and which, under a sometimes serious, sometimes ironical, profession of the ultra-rational character of religious doctrines, really undermines all belief in them. The other characteristic type of modern scepticism is that which takes its stand on physical science, and advocates a sort of naturalistic positivism to the exclusion of any higher knowledge. The

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tionalistic philosophy on which such a position is apt to be based had its greatest representative in Hume; but Hume, unlike some of his later followers, was well aware that his sensationalism had universal scepticism for its logical outcome. It is this philosophical incoherence of scientific naturalism which is the object of Mr. A. J. Balfour's attacks in his Defence of Philosophic Doubt (1879), and his Foundations of Belief (1895). For history and references, see Flint's Agnosticism (1903).

Sceptre, a ruler's symbol of authority. In Greece it was often lance-shaped; in Egypt, tipped with plough or stork; in Rome, of ivory, straight or curved (see Livy, v. 41; Scipio); at Con

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Forms of Sceptre.

Ancient Greek: 1, from Tarentum; 2, 3, 4, from Mycena (gold and crystal). English: 5, from seal of Edward the Confes sor; 6, from a portrait of Richard II.; 7, the sceptre with cross, used since the Restoration.

stantinople, with globe, eagle, or cross; in France, with ball or fleur-de-lis. Famous specimens are Charles v.'s, so-called of Charlemagne, at the Louvre; of Stephen of Hungary, at Aix-laChapelle; of Napoleon 1. English royal sceptres date from the restoration of St. Edward. One of gold (15th century) exists in the Scottish regalia.

Schadow, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1764-1850), German sculptor, born at Berlin; was director (1816) of the Berlin Academy of Arts; is known for his statues of Frederick the Great in Stettin, Blucher in Rostock, the monument of Luther at Wittenberg, the chariot over the Brandenburg gate at Berlin, and a great number of

royal portraits and busts; and he is regarded as the founder of that modern German school of sculpture in which classical influences were strong.

Schadow-Godenhaus, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1789-1862), German historical and portrait painter, born in Berlin; studied at Rome under Cornelius and Overbeck; became (1819) professor in the Berlin Academy of Fine Arts, and succeeded Cornelius as director of the academy at Düsseldorf (1826). Among his chief works are The Four Evangelists, in the Werder church in Berlin, and an Ascension of Mary, in St. Paul's church at Aixla-Chapelle. He was more distinguished as a teacher than as an artist. See Life, in German, by Hübner (1869).

Schäfer, EDWARD ALBERT (1850), English physiologist, was born at Hornsey, London; in 1874 became assistant professor of physiology at University College, London, where he was Jodrell professor (1883-99); after which he was appointed professor of physiology in Edinburgh University. His works include A Course of Practical Histology (2d ed. 1897), Text-book of Physiology (2 vols. 1898-1900), and Essentials of Histology (6th ed. 1902).

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Schaff, PHILIP (1819-93), German-American divine, born at Chur, Switzerland, and received his education there and at the universities of Tübingen, Halle, and Berlin, taking his degree in divinity at Berlin. He lectured at the last named university on exegesis and church history from 1842 to 1884, and was then called to the professorship of theology in the Mercersburg, Pa., German Reformed Theological Seminary. He removed to New York city in 1863, was appointed professor of theological cyclopædia and Christian symbolism in Union Theological Seminary in 1870, was transferred to other professorships in 1874 and 1887, and remained with this institution until his death. He was president of the American Bible Revision Committee of 1871, and edited several important theological works, including the English translation of Lange's Commentary on the Holy Scriptures (24 vols., 1864-86). He was a founder and honorary secretary of the American branch of the Evangelical Alliance, was first president of the American Society of Church History, and with tongue and pen devoted himself to the harmonizing of Christian belief and feeling the world over. His principal work was his History of the Christian Church (185890), and secondary in importance was his editing of the SchaffHerzog Encyclopædia of Religious

Knowledge (1882; 3d ed. 1891). See the Life, by his son (1897).

Schaffhausen. (1.) Swiss canton, on r. bk. of Rhine. Area, 114 sq. m.; pop. (1900) 41,514, mainly Protestants and Germanspeaking. It was admitted into the Swiss confederation in 1501, and is remarkable for its manufacturing industry. (2.) Town, cap. of above canton, on r. bk. of Rhine, in which are the famous falls (80 ft.). Here are factories for vehicles, cottons, machinery, soap, and candles; also breweries and distilleries. It has a fine old church, formerly belonging to a celebrated Benedictine nunnery (1050-1524). Pop. (1900) 15,275.

Schäffle, ALBERT (1831), German political economist, born at Nürtingen in Würtemberg; ap; pointed professor of political economy at Tübingen (1860), and at Vienna (1868). He became Austrian minister of commerce (1871), and then he returned to Stuttgart, to engage in literary work. Among his more important publications are: Die Na tionelokonomie (1861); Kapitalismus und Sozialismus (1870); Das Gesellschaftliche System der Menschlichen Wirtschaft (1867); Quintessenz des Sozialismus (1874); Bau und Leben des Sozialen Körpers (1896); Die Steuern (1895-7); Die agrarische Frage (1902); Aus meinem Leben (1904).

Schalke, tn., Prussia, prov. Westphalia, 8 m. N.N.E. of Essen; is a coal-mining centre, and manufactures zinc, wire, and hardware. Pop. (1900) 26,077.

Schall, JOHANN ADAM VON (1591-1669), German Jesuit missionary, born at Cologne; entered the Society of Jesus at Rome (1611), and was sent to China as a missionary (1622). He there studied astronomy, revised the Chinese imperial calendar, and introduced into China the division of the day into hours, minutes, and seconds. In 1664 he was imprisoned, and died after a long confinement. He wrote a Latin narrative of Chinese Missions (1655).

Schamir, a mythical Eastern worm, small as a barleycorn, but of mysterious power, able to shatter rocks, reveal hidden treasure, and give or paralyze life. It was used by Solomon to shape the temple stones. Styled Thumare in Gesta Romanorum, Thamir by Gervaise of Tilbury, it figures also as Samur, the stone of wisdom, and among the Greeks as a plant. See Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, second series, by Baring-Gould (1881).

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Schandorph, SOPHUS (18371900), whose proper name Skamdrup, Danish novelist, was born at Ringsted. Beginning as a writer of the romantic school,

Scharf

he only found his true vocation after listening to the lectures of Georg Brandes, and henceforth distinguished himself as a delineator of actual life in small provincial towns. Among his gifts was that of humor. His novels and tales include Fra Provinsen (1876), Uden Midtpunkt (1878), Smaafolk (1880), Thomas Fris's Historie (1881), Det Gamle Apothek (1885), Poet og Junker (1891), Tre Appelsiner (1894), Frigjort (1896), Gamle Billeder (1899), and Helga (1900).

Scharf, JOHN THOMAS (184398), American author, was born in Baltimore, Md., and served in the Confederate army and navy. He then engaged in business, was editor of the Baltimore Telegram and of the Baltimore Morning Herald, was admitted to the bar in 1874, and served in the Maryland state legislature. He gave much study to the history of his city and state, and published Chronicles of Baltimore (1874), History of Maryland (3 vols., 1879-80), History of Western Maryland (2 vols., 1882), among other volumes, besides a History of the Confederate States Navy (1887) and á History of Delaware (1888).

Scharnhorst, GERHARD JoHANN DAVID VON (1755-1813), Prussian soldier, was born at Bordenau in Hanover. He served in the army against France in 1793, and in 1801 became director of the military academy in Berlin. In 1806 he was present at the battles of Auerstädt and Eylau, and in 1807 began the reorganization of the Prussian army, by which he laid the foundations of that country's military power. In 1812 he accompanied Blücher to the front as chief of his staff. See Life, in German, by Lehmann (1886-7).

Scharwenka, XAVER (1850), German composer and pianist, born at Samter, near Posen, Prussia, and a pupil of Kullak and Wüerst in Berlin. For several years he devoted himself to concert playing and to chamber music, in which latter field he had the assistance of Emil Sauret and H. Grunfeld, teaching the piano, meantime, in the Kulfak Conservatory. In 1880 he founded the Scharwenka Conservatory in Berlin, and in 1891 he established a similar institution in New York city. In 1898 he returned to Germany, where he is highly esteemed as a pianoforte teacher, to take charge of the Klindworth-Scharwenka Conservatory. His compositions include an opera, Mataswintha (Weimar, 1896), a symphony (C minor, Op. 60), three pianoforte concertos, much chamber music, and a number of popular pianoforte pieces. He edited Schu

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mann's pianoforte works and several of Chopin's important compositions. His own compositions reach nearly 100.

Schassburg (Hung. Segesvár), tn., co. Nagy-Küküllö, Hungary, 25 m. by rail E.S.E. of MarosVásárhely, centre of a wine and hop district. Pop. (1900) 10,857. Schaumburg-Lippe, princi

pality of Germany, within a loop of the Weser, between Westphalia and Hanover, with an area of 131 sq. m. and a population (1900) of 43,132, nearly all Protestants. The greater part belongs to the N. German plain. Agriculture is the principal occupation. Cap. Bückeburg. The principality has one vote in the Imperial Federal Council, and sends cne representative to the Imperial Diet. It dates from 1807, but the dynasty goes back to the 10th century. See also LIPPE.

Schechter, SOLOMON (1849), American educator, born in Fokshan, Roumania; was educated at the Universities of Vienna and Berlin; made a special study of divinity and Semitics, and became reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic literature at Cambridge University and professor of Hebrew at University College, London. He distinguished himself as special agent at Cambridge University, by discovering in the oldest synagogue in the world, at Cairo, Egypt, a priceless store of books, scrolls, and MSS. of great antiquity. This collection was secured for the Cambridge library, where he translated many of its most precious parts. In 1902 he became president of the newly established Jewish Theological Seminary of America at New York.

Scheele, CARL WILHELM (174286), Swedish chemist, was born at Stralsund, became a chemist at Köping, and devoted himself to chemical research, being much influenced by Bergman. His principal work includes discoveries of chlorine, oxygen, manganese, barium, and a host of compounds, among which are ammonia, hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, arsenic, prussic, oxalic, and other acids. He also invented many new methods of preparation and analysis; a green pigment and a solution of prussic acid are still called after him. See Nordenskiöld's Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1893), and Hays's The Life Work of Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1884).

Scheffel, JOSEPH VIKTOR VON (1826-86), German poet, born at Karlsruhe. His first volume, written in Italy, was Der Trompeter von Säckingen (1854), a metrical tale of the time of the Thirty Years' War, which has run through more than two hundred editions. He devoted himself to early German and folklore studies, the

Schelling

fruits of which were seen in his next tale (in prose), Ekkehard (1857), likewise exceedingly popular. His remaining volumes were largely poetry-Gaudeamus (1867); Frau Aventiure (1863); Bergpsalmen (1870); Waldeinsamkeit (1880); with two excellent romances, Juniperus (1868) and Hugideo (1884). See Lives by Ruhemann (1886), Prölss (1887), and Pilz (1887).

Scheffer, ARY (1795-1858), French portrait and historical painter, born at. Dordrecht, of German parentage, was a pupil of Guérin in Paris. His Suliote Women (1827) marked his severance from the classic school of his master. He was court painter at Amsterdam, and in 1836 became art instructor to the Orleans family. Influenced by Byron and Goethe, he produced Margaret at her Wheel, Margaret at the Well, and many other Faust subjects. Later he turned to religious painting

-e. g. Christus Consolator, Christus Remunerator, St. Augustine and Monica. His Francesca da Rimini is his finest work. See Mrs. Grote's Memoir (ed. 1860).

Scheffler, JOHANN. See ANGELUS SILESIUS.

Scheideck, or SCHEIDEGG, GREAT and LITTLE, Swiss passes, limiting on N.E. and s.w. respectively the valley of Grindelwald, in the Bernese Oberland. The Little Scheideck (6,772 ft.) is crossed by a mountain railway from Lauterbrunnen to Grindelwald. The Great Scheideck (6,434 ft.) is traversed by a mule-path (a road and railway are projected), which leads from Grindelwald to Meiringen in the upper Aar or Häsli valley, and at the s. foot of the Brünig Pass.

Scheldt, or SCHELDE (French Escaut), riv., rises in dep. Aisne, France, flows N.E. into Belgium, and enters the North Sea by E. Scheldt and the W. Scheldt (or Honte). The river passes Cambrai and Valenciennes in France, and in Belgium, Tournai, Oudenarde, Ghent, Dendermonde, and Antwerp. Its chief tributaries are Lys (1. bk.), and Dender and Rupel (r. bk.). "Of its total length (270 m.) 211 m. are navigable to Cambrai, round which is a network of canals connecting the basins of the Seine and Somme. In 1648 tolls were placed on Lower Scheldt trade by the treaty of Westphalia, but were removed by the treaty of Brussels in 1863.

Schelling, FELIX EMMANUEL (1858). American educator, author, and editor, born in New Albany, Ind.; graduated from the Univ. of Penn., 1881; admitted to the Philadelphia bar in 1883; became assistant professor of English literature, Univ. of Penn., 1889, and since 1893 has been John Welsh Centennial professor

of English literature at that Univ. He lectured at Johns Hopkins in 1908-10. Prof. Schelling has published Literary and Verse Criticism of the Reign of Elizabeth (1891); The English Chronicle Play (1902); History of Elizabethan Drama (1907), etc., and has also edited various works.

Schelling, FRIEDRICH WILHELM JOSEPH VON (1775-1854), German post- Kantian philosopher, was born at Leonberg in Würtemberg, and became (1798) a university teacher at Jena. He occupied chairs in a number of the German universities, his longest terms being at Munich (1808-20, 1827-40), and his last at Berlin. His earlier philosophy is on the whole a continuation and development of the idealism of Fichte. But whereas in Fichte's philosophy nature is wholly subordinated to the human or spiritual side of experience, Schelling seeks to do equal justice to nature, and to conceive the absolute principle as one of which nature and spirit are the equally necessary though opposed expressions. This common principle is neither nature to the exclusion of spirit, nor spirit to the exclusion of nature-neither object nor subject-but the identity in which their difference disappears. It can be adequately apprehended neither by the theoretical philosophy which is concerned with nature, nor by the practical philosophy which is concerned with human action, but only by some mode of thought which transcends this antithesis, and which is described by Schelling as a sort of intellectual intuition. It is in art that Schelling sees the truest illustration of such intellectual intuition. In science and morality, form and matter are in different ways opposed to each other, but in art they are completely fused. The theosophical gnosticism of his later thought falls outside the idealistic movement proper. The titles of his chief works are: Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature (1797); System of Transcendental Idealism (1800); Lectures on Philosophy of Art (posthumous); Lectures on the

Method of Academic Study (1803); Nature of Human Freedom (1809); His Sämtliche Werke (14 vols.) were issued by his son in 1856-61. See Aus Schellings Leben, ed. Plitt (1870), also Watson's Schelling's Transcendental Idealism (1883).

Schenck, ROBERT CUMMING (1809-90), American soldier and politician, born at Franklin, O. He graduated at Miami Univ. in 1827, was a member of Congress in 1843-51, and Minister to Brazil in 1851-53. In 1861 he was made brigadier-general of volunteers, and saw service in West

Virginia and Virginia, reaching the rank of major-general and resigning in 1863. He was a member of Congress from Ohio in 1863-71 and Minister to England in 1871-76. In 1871 he was a member of the Joint High Commission which drew up the Treaty of Washington.

Schenectady, city, N. Y., co. seat of Schenectady co., 15 m. N.W. of Albany, on the Mohawk R. and the Erie Canal, and on the N. Y. Cent, and H. R. and the Del, and H. R. Rs. It also has railroad connections with the Bost. and Me. and W. Shore R. Rs., and electric lines run to Troy, Albany, Saratoga Springs, and other towns. It is the seat of Union University, founded as Union College (1795), and possesses a public library, city hall, court house, the Ellis Hospital, Children's Home, Home of the Friendless, opera house, public park, and a state armory. The First Reformed Church and St. George's (P. E.) are both of colonial origin. Schenectady has important manufacturing interests, including the chief plant of the Edison General Electric Company, the Westinghouse Agricultural Works, and the American Locomotive Works. According to the U. S. census of 1905 it had 103 manufacturing establishments, with an invested capital of $22,050,746, employing 14,316 wage-earners, and having a total product valued at $33,084,

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This was an increase of $8,444,954 in invested capital as compared with 1900, and of $16,479,592 in the value of output. In 1900 the value of the products of the four foundry and chine shops was $5,207,586. Other important manufactures are brooms and brushes, mirrors, picture frames, furniture, patent medicines, electrical construction supplies, stoves, women's underwear, shawls, shirts, lace, sashes and blinds, carriages, varnish, and boats. Schenectady was founded in 1661 by Arent Van Curler. Letters patent were granted in 1684. In 1690 a French and Indian band massacred all but 60 of the inhabitants and burned the town. It was incorporated as a borough in 1765 and chartered as a city in 1799. The business section of the town was almost wholly destroyed by a fire in 1819. Pop. (1890) 19,902; (1900) 31,682; (1910) 72,826.

Schenkel, DANIEL (1813-85), German liberal theologian, was born at Dägerlen, Zürich, and after a pastorate at Schaffhausen (1841-9), he became professer at Basel, and at Heidelberg (1851). He published Das Wesen des Protestantismus (1846-51), Unionsberuf des Evangelischen Protestantismus (1855), Christliche Dogmatik (1358-9), Grundlehren des

Christenthums (1877), and a biography of Schleiermacher (1868), and edited the Allgemeine Kirchliche Zeitschrift., His chief me

morial is the 'Charakterbild Jesu (1864; trans. 1866), a clever and eloquent work, though neither profound nor convincing.

Scherer, EDMOND HENRI ADOLPHE (1815-89), French man of letters, born at Paris. He had an excellent knowledge of the English language and literature. Having entered the Protestant ministry at Strassburg (1836), he became professor of exegetical theology at Geneva (1845). Gradually his faith in the essentials of Christianity weakened, and he retired from the Ichurch to devote himself to literature. He acted as Paris correspondent to the Daily News. An accomplished critic and literary historian, he is chiefly remembered by his Etudes Critiques sur la Littérature Contemporaine (1863-95), parts of which were translated by Professor Saintsbury as Essays on English Literature (1891); Etudes Critiques de Littérature (1876); Diderot (1880); Etudes sur la Littérature du XVIIIe Siècle (1891); and in theology by La Critique et La Foi (1850), and Lettres à Mon Curé (1853). See Gréard's Edmond Scherer (1890).

Scherzo, a term in music, which is perhaps most frequently employed to designate a particular movement in symphonies and sonatas. The music of a scherzo is generally of a light, dainty, and playful character.

Scheveningen, seaside resort and fishing port, Netherlands, prov. S. Holland, on North Sea, 3 m. N.W. of The Hague. It has an imposing Kurhaus (1886), and a herring fishery. Pop. (1900) 20,000. Off Scheveningen the last great fight of the first Dutch War was fought on June 31, 1653, between the Dutch and British. The Dutch had 14 ships sunk or burned,and Admiral Tromp killed.

Schiaparelli, GIOVANNI VIRGINIO (1835), Italian astronomer, born at Savigliano; studied at Turin, Berlin, and Pulkova; became assistant director, 1859, and director, 1862, of the observatory at Milan; in 1861 he discovered the planetoid Hesperia, and in 1877 markings on the surface of Mars, which he called canals, and to which his name was given. He also announced that he had observed markings on Mercury. His numerous writings include Note e reflessioni sulla teoria astronomica delle stelle cadenti (1867), and I Precursori di Copernico nell' antichità (1876).

Schiavone, ANDREA (1522-82), Italian painter of the Venetian school, born at Sebenico in Dalmatia. His real name was Me

Schiedam

doia, and his identity with Meldolla, the engraver, has been established. In his youth he was a house decorator, and had no special training. Titian, under whom he studied at Venice, befriended him. His best works are cabinet pictures. Among others are Adoration of the Shepherds, Holy Family, and Death of Abel.

Schiedam, tn., Netherlands, prov. S. Holland, near r. bk. of Maas, 3 m. by rail w. of Rotterdam; the centre of gin distillation. Pop. (1900) 27,126.

Schiehallion, isolated mountain (3,547 ft.), Perthshire, Scotland, 11 m. w.N.w. of Aberfeldy,

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table and educational institutions. He assisted in the founding and became president of the N. Y. Montefiore Home for Chronic Invalids, and was a founder of the N. Y. Jewish Theological Seminary, for which he erected a building. In 1903 he presented to Harvard the first Semitic Museum founded in the U. S., and he made many lesser benefactions.

Schiller, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1759-1805), German poet, was born at Marbach in Würtemberg. He wished to study for the church; but the Duke of Würtemberg had established a military school (Carls

Schiller

drama was received with great applause, though its language is often wildly rhetorical. Yet the charm of romance hangs round the story, which is rendered with dramatic power and inspired by the great idea of freedom. Theatredirector Dalberg put the play upon the Mannheim stage (June 13, 1782); but this involved Schiller in difficulties with the court of Würtemberg.. Finally he fled from Stuttgart in disguise (Sept. 22, 1782). Frau von Wolzogen received him in her house at Bauerbach, near Karlsruhe in Baden, till in June, 1783, he was appointed poet to the theatre at Mannheim. Here, in the follow

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was in 1774 the scene of experiments by Dr. Nevil Maskelyne to ascertain the mean density of the earth.

Schiff, JACOB HENRY (1847), American banker and philanthropist, born at Frankfort-onthe-Main, Germany, and educated in the schools of that city. He early entered the banking business, came to New York city in 1865, achieved success in financial circles, and became head of the banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. He became director in many important corporations, including the N. Y. National City Bank, the Equitable Life Assurance Society, and the Union Pacific Railroad Co. As he grew wealthy he gave freely to chari

Scheveningen-the Kurhaus.

schule) for the sons of his officers, and he decreed that Schiller should study jurisprudence. Two years later, when the school was removed to Stuttgart, Schiller deserted law for medicine. The military discipline of the academy was exceedingly galling to Schiller's sensitive mind; and it was only in secret that he could peruse such books as Götz von Berlichingen and Werther, Klopstock's Messias, Shakespeare, Ossian, Rousseau, and Plutarch. Inspired by these great models he wrote the play of Die Räuber, into which he breathed all his passionate and tumultuous hatred of tyranny. It was not published till 1781, when he had been appointed an army surgeon. The

in

ing year, appeared his next two dramas, Fiesco (January 11) and Kabale und Liebe (April 15). The scene of Fiesco is laid in Genoa. It is a dark picture of Italian intrigue; Kabale und Liebe is a tragedy of court life in Germany. After leaving Mannheim 1785, Schiller resided for about a year in Leipzig and the neighboring village of Gohlis, where he wrote his Lied an die Freude. He was at this time in great poverty, and lived at Dresden on the hospitality of Christian Gottfried Körner, the father of the poet of the War of Liberation, till July, 1787. In the meantime the Rheinische Thalia, a literary journal founded in 1785, was carried on as Thalia till

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und Würde, Naive und sentimentale Dichtung, Die tragische Kunst, and Die sthetische Erziehung des Menschen.

In 1794 Schiller began to draw nearer to Goethe in personal and literary sympathy. Both contributed to the Horen (1795-7) and to the Musenalmanach (1796-8), which superseded it. In the latter journal appeared the Xenien (1797), a series of keen satires on the mediocre literati of the day. They were followed in 1798 by a number of splendid ballads, the most famous of Schiller's being Der Taucher, Der Ring des Polycrates, Die Kraniche des Ibykus, and Der Kampf mit dem Drachen. These are worthy of a place beside the best ballads of any literature. In the Musenalmanach appeared also after 1796 a series of poems of a more philosophical character, expressing Schiller's mature ideas on religion, education, human life, and happiness. The most famous of these are Der Spaziergang, Das Glück, Ideal und Leben, and, above all, the famous Lied von der Glocke (1800).

In 1798 appeared Wallensteins Lager, the herald of that splendid series of plays-Die Piccolomini and Wallensteins Tod (1800), Maria Stuart (1800), Die Braut von Messina (1803), Die Jungfrau von Orleans (1802), and Wilhelm Tell (1804). These works reveal dramatic power of an exceptionally high order. The weakest of the series is the Braut von Messina, in which Schiller attempted to combine romantic elements with the Greek chorus. Joan of Arc is more successful as a heroine than Queen Mary, though both enlist our warmest sympathy. The greatest of the series_are Wallenstein and Wilhelm Tell. The latter drama had been remodelled for the Weimar stage in 1797.

Schiller is one of the most sympathetic figures in literature. A man of singular purity of character, with a mind ambitious of reaching the highest, he strove, in spite of bodily weakness and the frowns of fortune, to attain the ideal in life and art. In his most successful dramas (Tell, Wallenstein, and Nie Räuber) the interest lies in the questions of great national moment-liberation, revolt against authority, the struggle for individual freedom. Into these he breathed all the warmth of his own passion, and thus transformed philosophy and history into poetry. In his sublimity he sometimes neglected to work out the details of character, was usually dead to the effects of humor, and too much devoted to needless rhetoric. In later life he manifested the same longing for the artistic, the same love of Greek art as Goethe. There by

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