literature in 1895. Among his publications are The History of Oratory (1896), The Occasional Address (1897), Principles and Methods of Literary Criticism (1898), and The Makers of American Literature (1905).

Sea-serpent. According to an ancient northern belief a gigantic serpent surrounded the earthly globe. But this Midgarth Worm of the Norse mythology shrinks to smaller dimensions when it becomes identified with the 'leviathan' of the Book of Job (41: 1,2), as it is in an Icelandic gloss of the 12th century. And its mythological character disappears altogether in the accounts of Olaus Magnus (16th century) and Pontoppidan (18th century), whose sea-serpent, or kraken, is obviously as real as a whale in spite of many incredible attributes assigned to it. The picture of a sea monster of this class, portrayed in the pages of the Norwegian missionary Hans Egede (18th century), has been satisfactorily shown by W. E. Hoyle to have been simply a misrepresentation of a gigantic squid in the act of rearing itself out of the water. Many of these huge creatures exist in the depths of the N. Atlantic, and a number of the stories of sea-serpents can be accounted for by their occasional appearance on the surface. Seamen and naval officers testify to having seen, near at hand, an immense marine creature, previously unknown to them, and to science, as an existing form. The theory that there are still a few living specimens of marine reptiles, such as the plesiosaurus, and that at rare intervals these appear on the surface of the ocean, has received the support of such authorities as Gosse and Newman. Armchair sceptics explain these phenomena as a string of porpoises, a pair of basking sharks following each other, a flight of sea-fowl, or a mass of floating sea-weed. The most complete analysis of this question is The Great Sea-Serpent, by Dr. A. C. Oudemans (1893); but see also Lee's SeaMonsters Unmasked (1883), and Hoyle in vol. ix. of Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh.

Seashore. The strip of land immediately bordering the sea, which extends from the highest point reached by an ordinary high tide to the edge of the water at low tide. In the United States this strip belongs to the state within which it lies. The state may grant private citizens certain rights over it, as to build a pier or dock, but the public has an ancient right of gathering shellfish, etc., and fishing from it.

Seashore, biologically, may be said to include the area between

tide-marks and just above them. For the geologist, che term 'littoral fauna' includes shallowwater forms in general as contrasted with the floating population of the open seas (pelagic fauna') and the fauna of the great depths ('abyssal fauna'). It will be convenient to consider separately-(1) the region above high tide mark, (2) the region between tide-marks, (3) the region beyond low-tide mark; or, to put the matter in another way-(1) the region which is rarely or never submerged, (2) the region of occasional submergence, (3) the region of continual submergence. Of these the first is the region inhabited by terrestrial animals and plants, as the third is the region of marine organisms, while the second is, in a sense, the meeting - ground of the two faunas and floras, though the marine element largely preponderates, at least in the British climate.

All flowering plants which live near high-tide mark display, to a greater or less extent, the peculiarities possessed by plants that give off water with extreme slowness. The small and fleshy leaves, thick skin, and other peculiarities of common shore plants serve the same purpose, and this is necessary on two grounds. Where the plants live quite near the sea the soil is saturated with salt water, and plants can only absorb such water with extreme slowness. Further, the cell-sap of the plants contains a considerable amount of salt, and if the salt reaches a certain degree of concentration, as by the loss of water through the leaves, then the process of starch-making in the leaves is checked or stopped. In brief, pure water is hard to get, and maritime flowering plants must husband their store carefully. In the second place, the sandy, porous soil in which such plants live does not retain the water which falls on it, and therefore the plants are in constant danger of drought.

In northern latitudes, wherever the shore is sandy the sea-reed (Ammophila arundinacea) binds the shifting sand with its long root-stocks, and in this work it is assisted by the sandwort spurrey (Spergularia marina), the stonecrops (Sedum), the sea- - rocket (Cakile maritima), and many others. Once the loose soil has been fixed and enriched by these pioneers, they are assisted by bracken-fern, bird's-foot, trefoil, rest harrow, thyme, and hosts of other low-growing plants. Where the coast is rocky we find the white-flowered sea-campion (Silene maritima); the dense tufts of sea-pink (Armeria maritima), with its rounded heads of blooms;

the sea-plantain (Plantago maritima). Nearer to the water-line we have the little sea-milk wort (Glaux maritima), and, rarely, true samphire (Crithmum maritimum) and the evil-smelling fennel (Faniculum vulgare).

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Associated with these numerous plants are many kinds of insects. Among the more striking of these are certain wingless forms of the genera Machilis and Anurida, of which the former is found about rocks, while the other occurs in swarms on the surface of rock pools, and is able to tolerate complete immersion in water. Other shore insects, common on dunes, are various bees, especially shorttongued forms, such as Andrena, many kinds of beetles, moths, and ants. Shelled snails of various kinds are common on the shore wherever vegetation is abundant. Nor should we pass over the birds, perhaps most fitly considered in this region, though their feeding-grounds are between or beyond tide-marks. In most places various species of gulls (Larus) are common, as are also the swallowlike terns (Sterna), the guillemots (Uria), razor-tills (Alca), the common cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), as well as sandpipers, sanderlings, and other shore-birds.'

The area between tide-marks is essentially the area of brown and green seaweeds (flowerless plants). Seawards it ends just at the margin of the Laminarian zone, where the oarweed (Laminaria) forms great sea-meadows. As the water deepens the light grows feebler, and the brown seaweeds are replaced by the red weeds, and finally we pass to the plantless depths overspread with mud and other deposits. This shore area extends outwards until these depcsits give place to the true oceanic oozes. Although the area between tide-marks is the area of the tangles or brown seaweeds, and of such green weeds as sea-lettuce (Ulva) and Entero-morpha, it has also, on the one hand, stragglers from the land area in the form of flowering plants, and, on the other hand, especially near its seaward margin, not a few members of the red Algæ. Glasswort (Salicornia herbacea) grows by preference on mudflats between tide-marks, where it is immersed twice daily. More striking still is the habit of Zostera, a strange, glass - like flowering plant, which grows permanently submerged. In tropical climates the littoral fringe of green and brown weed is much less obvious. In some cases, instead of a belt of Algæ. there are mangrove swamps Such members of the mangrov swamp fauna as the caller-crab (Gelasimus) and the curious jump

ing-fish (Periopthalamus) of Celebes help us to understand how a terrestrial fauna may arise from an aquatic one. In other parts of the tropical regions the intertidal zone is occupied, in part at least, by coral reefs. There Alga are rare. In temperate climates the majority of the animals living between tide-marks are found on or near rocks. In many cases-as in the periwinkles, the limpets, the sea-urchins, and some crustaceans -the reason for this association is that the animals feed upon the larger seaweeds, which can only thrive when attached to rock

ac

surfaces. In other cases-as in sponges, anemones, sea - firs, zoophytes, sea-squirts, and most bivalves the animals are incapable of resisting by their own movements the action of shore currents, and must have a firm basis of attachment. Again, others of the littoral animals are tively carnivorous, and must haunt the rocks, because these shelter the two preceding sets of animals, which form their natural prey. Such animals are the different kinds of fish, most of the larger crustacea, many molluscs (such as the cuttles and certain of the gasteropods), and the larger worms. Of these three groups of animals-the purely herbivorous, the sedentary forms, the carnivorous forms-the first set are especially characteristic of the area between tide-marks; the periwinkles and certain of the limpets are, indeed, confined to this area. The other two sets occur equally within and beyond low-tide mark, such active forms as the fish and the cuttles being in many cases only casual visitors to the shore pools. Besides these rock-haunting animals, there also occur within and beyond tidemarks many sand-burrowers.

Among the sand-burrowers are many worms, many molluscs, such as cockles and razor-shells, echinoderms such as heart-urchins and the wormlike Synapta, while the mud of deeper water contains peculiar representatives of the same groups. The majority of these animals are furnished with protective investments of some sort, such as shells or tubes; while yet others find shelter and safety by burrowing in rocks, sand, or mud. The presence of armor of some sort may thus be said to be a general characteristic of shore animals, and is one of the contrasts which they offer to the delicate floating animals of the open sea. Again, very many are sedentary, some permanently so-e.g. acorn-shells; while others, like the limpet, have strong clinging power, or, like mussels and other bivalves, Symhave anchoring threads. biosis and masking are also both

frequent, the latter especially among crabs. Remarkable resemblances between the colors of animals and their surroundings are common, and in not a few cases the colors of the animals are variable-changing, though often slowly, with changes in the surroundings. Finally, one of the most striking peculiarities of shore animals in general is the frequent occurrence, in the life-history, of a free-swimming pelgaic stage. This permits of the distribution of the species; but its exact significance, from the evolutionist's point of view, is still keenly debated.

See Newbigin's Life by the Seashore (1901); Arnold's Sea-Beach at Ebb Tide (1900); Heilprin's Animal Life of Our Seashore (1888); and Mayer's Seashore Life (1906). For the seaweeds, see Cook's Introduction to the Study of (British)

Seaweeds (1895) and Farlow's

Marine Alga of New England (1883).

Sea-sickness, the peculiar reflex disturbances of the nervous system produced by a ship or a boat in motion, and resulting in various degrees of disturbance to the alimentary system, from slight nausea to severe vomiting, sometimes uncontrollable and, very rarely, ending fatally by exhaustion. In most cases sea-sickness is merely temporary, even during a voyage lasting for the first few days only, and then ending either in complete recovery with greatly improved appetite, or in general wellbeing with occasional relapses in severe weather. Precisely similar effects are produced upon some by the motion of a swing or a railroad train. In some cases the disorder is due not so much to the motion as to a lack of fresh air, combined with the smell of bilge-water and engineoil; and a person may be very sea-sick in a tramp' steamer, but quite at ease in an open boat. The brain seems to be affected through the nerve supply to brain, eyes, stomach, and perhaps other channels. Habit usually brings temporary indifference; but in many cases the fresh nervous system needs a training for each voyage. It is said that Nelson, the English admiral, never completely conquered sea-sickness; and the motion of some modern forms of vessel, such as the torpedo-boat destroyer, will at times affect the strongest stomachs. Children and old people are least likely to be affected by sea-sickness, while women, as a rule, suffer more than men. A pregnant woman may suffer especially, and seasickness is a frequent cause of abortion.

There is no specific against sea

sickness. The most favorable position is a recumbent one-at full length in a chair, on deck if possible. Food should be specially light and readily digestible until the stomach is accustomed to its new conditions. It should be taken as soon after vomiting as it can be borne. Champagne or a little brandy may be advisable if exhaustion is great. A tight broad bandage about the abdomen often has a good effect, and relieves the strain of vomiting. The sufferer should be thoroughly protected from cold. Many escape trouble by carefully breathing regularly and not in rhythm with the dip or roll of the ship.

Seaside Grape, the popular name of a small W. Indian tree, Coccoloba uvifera, belonging to the order Polygonaceæ. Its wood is very hard and close-fibred, and takes a good polish. The tree bears bunches of fruit, the fleshy part of which is eaten, being refreshingly tart. The nuts are surrounded by the permanent violet calyxes, which are conspicuously beautiful.

Sea - slug. See GASTROPODA. The name is also occasionally applied incorrectly to the holothurian.

Sea-snakes constitute a subfamily (Hydrophida) of venomous snakes (Colubrida proteroglypha), characterized by the marine habitat and the strongly compressed tail, which functions as a swimming organ. The food consists of fishes, and the animals range from the Persian Gulf to Central America, although they are most numerous in the InIdian Ocean and in the warmer parts of the W. Pacific. All the species are viviparcus, and it is

銀

Sea-snake (Hydrophis obscura).

said that the females approach the shore to give birth to their young, and remain with them there for some time. The head in all cases is relatively small, as are the scales over the whole body. The typical forms belong to the genus Hydrophis, of which H. obscura, found in the Bay of Bengal and the Malay Archipelago, is an example. It reaches a length of about a yard, and is prettily colored in green and yellow. An exception to the rule that the Hydrophida are marine is found in Distira Semperi, which is found in a fresh-water lake in the Philippine Is. Some of the species of the genus Platurus, again, are stated some

Seasons

times to quit the water voluntarily, and in several points of structure recall certain Indian species of adder (q.v.), from which the seasnakes have probably arisen. Seasnakes are highly poisonous.

Seasons, the periods into which the year is divided by the sun's changes in declination. They are a joint effect of the earth's orbital revolution and the inclination of its axis. Hence, in temperate zones, the sun's meridian altitude varies to the extent of 47°, and this, together with corresponding changes in the length of the day, occasions large vicissitudes of temperature. The four seasons are defined as beginning spring and autumn at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes respectively, summer and winter at the solstices. In the Northern and Southern Hemispheres their occurrence is interchanged, summer in one coinciding with winter in the other, and spring with autumn. The southern summer, because the earth is near perihelion in January, is hotter and shorter by seven days than the northern; while the southern winter is, to an equivalent degree, longer and colder.

Sea-spider. See PYCNOGONIDE.
Sea-squirt. See TUNICATA.

Sea-surgeon, or SURGEON-FISH, a bony, edible fish belonging to the genus Acanthurus, characterized by the sharp, lancet-shaped spines on the sides of the tail. When not in use these spines are lodged in grooves; but they can be erected, and then form dangerous weapons, the fish striking out laterally with the tail. This fish is an inhabitant of warm seas and haunts coral reefs. Often brightly colored, it bears conspicuous stripes and markings.

Sea-swallow. See TERN. Sea-trout, a popular name for various species of Salmonidæ, but especially applicable to S. trutta; also called salmon-trout. See SALMON.

Seattle, city, Washington, county seat of King co., 28 m. northeast of Tacoma, on the east shore of Puget Sound, is the terminus of the Northern Pacific, Great Northern, Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound, Oregon-Washington RR. & N. Co. (Union and Southern Pacific extension), Columbia & Puget Sound, and other steam and electric lines. It is attractively situated between Elliott Bay and Lake Washington, with steep hills rising from the water, the heights commanding superb views o the snow-crowned Olympic Mountains and the Cascades, including Mounts Rainier, Baker, and other promi nent peaks. It is the seat of the University of Washington, and has 61 graded and 6 high schools. Among other educational institutions are Washington Preparatory School for Girls, Academy of Holy Name, College of Our Lady of Lourdes, Adelphi College, Academy

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of Beaux Arts, Brothers School, and Seattle College.

Seattle has a central free public library with six branches. Among its notable buildings are the Government, Municipal, County Court House, Carnegie Library and branches, University of Washington, Y. M. C. A., Labor Temple, Harriman and Hill railroad stations, Grand Trunk Pacific, Colman, and other docks; the Rainier, University, Arctic, and Seattle Athletic Club Houses; Seattle Federation of Women's Clubs, Elks and Masons; St. James Cathedral, First Presbyterian Church, and other houses of worship. In 1911 construction was begun on an office building of fortyone stories. In 1910 there were 481 miles of graded streets, of which 143 had brick and asphalt pavement. The Fort Lawton Military Post, within the city limits, embraces 605 acres. The parks of the city, in addition to Fort Lawton, comprise 1,058 acres; the parking system has also 15 miles of completed boulevard, and extensions under construction for 50 miles.

The climate of Seattle is moist, equable, and healthful. The summer is cool, and the winter, or rainy season, mild and salubrious. The temperature rarely reaches 90° in summer, and in winter never goes as low as zero. The average rainfall is 36 inches.

The harbor is one of the best in America, and with the completion of the Lake Washington Canal, now (1911) under construction, will give unsurpassed fresh-water facilities. As the terminus of numerous transcontinental railroads and a seaport from which 58 lines of steamers already operate, Seattle has many commercial advantages. Direct steamship service is maintained to China, Japan, the Philippines, Honolulu, Pacific Coast and South American points, and Europe. It is the principal outfitting port for Alaska and Yukon gold fields, and the chief commercial and distributing centre for numerous ports and extensive territory in the Pacific Northwest. It has abundant electric power generated by the falls of rivers in the Cascades at a very low cost. The leading industries of the city are shipyards, saw-mills, shingle mills, flour, feed, and cereal mills, brick yards, terra-cotta works, foundries, machine shops, breweries, factories for the manufacture of sash, doors, blinds, woodenware, excelsior, barrels, boots, shoes, clothing, cars, wagons, carriages, furniture, and household commodities and food products.

numerous

The domestic trade of Seattle, including that with Alaska, largely exceeds the foreign trade. During 1910 the foreign imports amounted to $21,668,831, and the foreign exports to $10.150,702. The munici pality owns and operates its water system, garbage collection and de

Sea-urchins

stroying service, and electric-lighting plant.

The population in 1870 was 1,107; 1880, 3,533; 1890, 42,837; 1900, 80,671; 1910, 237,194. Area, 85.52 sq. m.

HISTORY.-Seattle was first settled in 1853, incorporated as a town in 1865, and granted a charter as a city in 1880. In 1889 it was almost entirely wiped out by fire, but one business block escaping destruction from the conflagration--the worst in the history of the Pacific Coast, with the exception of the San Francisco earthquake.

The Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition was held in Seattle from June 1 to Nov. 30, 1909. It has gone into history as 'the fair that was ready,' every detail being complete on the opening day. It was focated four miles from the city proper, on the grounds of the University of Washington. Fully 90,000 people attended the opening ceremonies, while the daily average attendance was about 28,000. It was notable for unusually beautiful landscape effects, and its profusion of flowers. (See EXHIBITIONS.)

Sea-unicorn. See NARWHAL. Sea-urchins (Echinoidea) form a class of the phylum Echinodermata. A typical form is Echinus esculentus, the common edible seaurchin, found abundantly off rocky coasts. It has an approximately spherical test or shell, built up of ten double rows of plates; of these, five are perforated by small openings through which in life the delicate tube-feet emerge, while the other five are imperforate. The outer surface of the test is densely clothed with spines. The apical area in the middle of the upper part of the shell has in its centre the posterior opening of the food-canal, placed in a patch of leathery skin, and arranged round it are five large and five small plates. The former bear each a genital pore, and one in addition has a number of minute openings, admitting water into the peculiar water-vascular system. This modified plate is known as the madreporite. The five small plates have each an eye spot. On the under surface of the test lies the mouth, surrounded by very extensible skin. From the mouth there may frequently be observed protruding five white teeth, which are placed in an elaborate masticatory apparatus known as Aristotle's lantern, worked by special muscles. In the water-vascular system the madreporite opens into a tube called the stone-canal, and this in turn opens into a ring-canal which passes round the upper part of the lantern. From this ringcanal pass five radial canals, which lie beneath the ambulacral areas, and communicate internally with a series of little reservoirs or ampullæ, and externally with the tube-feet