Sea-water

The tube-feet end in little suck-
ers, and can be rendered tense
with fluid, or allowed to become
empty and flaccid. By means of
their terminal suckers they act
as locomotor organs, their action
being assisted by the spines with
which the test is covered. By
means of its tube-feet and spines
the urchin can crawl up a per-
pendicular rock surface. The
sexes are separate, the ripe prod-
ucts in both cases leaving the
body by the genital pores. The
common sea-urchin lives at least
largely on seaweed, which is
chewed by means of the teeth.
In sandy parts of the coast the
edible urchin is replaced by great
numbers of heart-urchins (Echi-
nocardium), which burrow in the
sand, and live upon the organic
particles found in it; and by the
flat and disc-like dollar urchins
(Echinorachnus). Sea-urchins are
eaten in America only by the
Indians of the Northwest coast.

Certain of the fossil forms are
very different from existing forms,
and are referred to a special order,
as Palæo-echinoidea. The other
fossil forms may be included in
one or other of the three existing
orders. These are (1) the Endo-
cyclica, including regular forms
like Echinus; (2) the Clypeas,
tridea, forms in which the anus
lies outside the apical disc, but
which have masticatory organs
like the regular urchins; (3) the
Spatangida, or heart-urchins, in
which the anus is also outside
the apical disc, but which have
no trace of masticatory organs.

Sea-water, a solution cf various salts, principally sodium chloride, that have been washed out of the land by the action of rain, and conveyed by rivers to the sea and retained there. The composition of sea-water is fairly uniform when collected far from the land in seas that are in communication; but there are considerable differences observable in landlocked seas and salt lakes. Of seawaters of the first class, that of the Irish Sea may be taken as typical. The components in parts per 1,000 are approximately 26.4 sodium chloride, .75 potassium chloride, 3.15 magnesium chloride, .07 magnesium bromide, 2.07 magnesium sulphate, and 1.33 calcium sulphate, with smaller quantities of nitrates, ammonia, and iron-the specific gravity at 15° C. being 1.0248. The differences in composition between the above and the water of the North Sea, Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Pacific, though not great, are distinct, the total weight of dissolved solids varying nearly 10 parts in 1,000 in extreme cases, while in the Baltic and Black Seas they drop to half that of the North Sea, but rise in the case of the Dead Sea to nearly

77

ten times as great a quantity. Besides these salts there are relatively small amounts of many other impurities in sea-water. Most of the common metals have been detected, and the total quantities of these is very great.

Seaweed, a collective name for the marine Algæ, which are distributed from a little above the highest tide-marks to a depth of not much over fifty fathoms. In Roman times an alkaline dye was prepared from seaweed, probably from Fucus vesiculosus, the common bladderwrack. The 'seaweed pictures' sold at watering

Seaweed

principal natural means of distribution are, of course, ocean currents; but man counts for something, inasmuch as species are brought from port to port on the bottoms of ships. Among the chief barriers must be reckoned stretches of deep sea, coast deserts of sand and mud, and the irruption of fresh-water lowering the salinity of the neighboring tidal water. Probably the oldest seaweed known is one of Siphoneous structure, described as from the Devonian rocks.

From the coarser brown seaweeds kelp is prepared by burn

4. Common

places almost invariably contain a large proportion of the dried external skeletons of plant-like animals, such as the sea-mats (Flustra) and sea-firs (Sertularia).

We have here to deal with three out of the four orders mentioned under Algæ-the Chlorophycea (green), Phæophyceae (brown), and Rhodophyceae (red). In all but the green seaweeds the chlorophyll is masked by other coloring matters, which, however, may be dissolved out, and in the skeletons of dried seaweeds they become decomposed. (See further at SEASHORE.) Between twenty and fifty fathoms seaweeds are rare; beyond that depth their Occurrence is exceptional. The

ing, and used, though to a much less extent than formerly, in the manufacture of iodine. These are also collected for manure; and the vraik or wrack harvest, or cutting of these weeds in the Channel Islands, forms an important part of the farmer's work at certain times of the year. Laver (prepared from species of Porphyra) is valued as a delicate condiment in the west of England; and a similar preparation from Ulva latissima is known as green laver. Dulse (Rhodymenia palmata) and tangles (the young stalks of Laminaria digitata and L. saccharina) have been used for food in times of scarcity, but must be difficult of digestion. The

last-named species yield mannite. From Gracilaria lichenoides agaragar is prepared, and this forms the basis for culture media; it is also, with allied species, used by the Chinese and Japanese for jellies and sweetmeats, for stiffening purposes, and as varnish. The so-called carrageen moss (Chondrus crispus) has similar properties, but its nutritive value has been exaggerated.

The structure and reproduction of the green seaweeds have been treated under ALGE. Among the best-known British forms are the tubular Enteromorpha, or pipeweed; the branched Cladophora; Ulva, or sea-lettuce, with flat, spreading fronds; the feathery Bryopsis, like a miniature palm tree; and the button-like Codium,

gulf-weed, is included here. These belong to the first group, in which a sexual reproduction is effected by swarm-spores; sexual reproduction also takes place by the conjugation of cells, usually differing from swarm-spores only by their fusion. Here also belong the tangles (Laminaria), with fronds borne on a stalk that shows some advance in structure. In the Fucaceæ, of which the bladderwrack (Fucus), sea-oak (Halidrys), and seathongs (Himanthalia) are common British examples, the female cells are non-motife, and the male cells free-swimming; asexual_reproduction does not occur.

The

common Dictyota dichotoma and the rarer peacock weed (Padina pavonia) may well represent the third group in Britain. Asexual reproduction is effected by nonmotile spores; the male and female cells are also non-motile. A single cell is produced in, and ejected from, the female organ; the male cells do not bear cilia. According to Strasburger the process of fertilization has not been observed.

The third group contains nearly three hundred genera, mostly from temperate and tropical seas. They vary a good deal in form, and, taking British genera as examples, may be thread-like, as Griffithsia; membranaceous, as Porphyra; encrusting, as Melobesia; calcareous and branched, as Corallina; or furnished with a midrib, as Delesseria. The sexual process is highly specialized, and varies in complexity in different genera. See G. R. N. Murray's How to Study Seaweeds (1895).

Her

Seawell, MOLLY ELLIOT (1860), American author, was born in Gloucester co., Va., and was the daughter of John Tyler Seawell, and a grand-niece of President Tyler. She became a popular writer for children, winning her first success with Little Jarvis (1890). Afterwards she produced some fiction for adults. Maid Marian (1894) and The Sprightly Romance of Marsac (1896) were dramatized, the latter by William Young. Others of her books were Midshipman Paulding (1891), A Virginia Cavalier (1896), The Lively Adventures of Gavin Hamilton (1899), The House of Egremont (1900), Francezka (1902), and The Château of Montplaisir (1906).

Sea-wolf. See WOLF-FISH. Sebastian (1554-78), king of Portugal, led an expedition against the Moors (1578), when he was defeated and slain at the battle of Alcázar in Morocco. Rumors afterwards arose that he was not dead, and these led to the appearance of impostors who claimed the crown. Sebastian

forms the subject of one of Dryden's plays.

Sebastian, Sr. (255-288), Christian martyr, born at Narbonne in Gaul, and rose to high favor with the Emperor Diocletian. He was supposed to have been put to death by a troop of archers, but a Christian lady took the body to her house, where he recovered. He was afterwards beaten to death with clubs in the amphitheatre at Rome, and another Christian woman had him interred in the catacombs. The early Italian painters expended their powers on representations of his martyrdom.

was

Sebastiano del Piombo (14851547), Italian painter, born at Venice. His family name Luciani, that by which he is known being derived from the office he held (1531-47) of keeper of the seal (piombo) under Pope Clement VII. He studied under Bellini and Giorgione. In 1509 he accompanied Agostino Chigi to Rome, and assisted in the decoration of his palace of Farnesina. His skill as a colorist won for him the friendship of Michael Angelo, with whom he co-operated. He was the inventor of a method of painting on stone. His most famous works are the Raising of Lazarus, and portraits of Andrea Doria, Cardinal Pole, and Clement VII.

Sebastopol. See SEVASTOPOL. Sebenico, tn. and episc. see, Dalmatia, Austria, on bay of Sebenico, on Adriatic, 31 m. N.W. of Spalato. It has a 15th-16th century cathedral, and carries on fishing and shipping. Pop. (1900) 24,751.

Sébillot, PAUL (1846), French writer on folklore, born at Matignon (Côtes-du-Nord dep.). He abandoned law and art successively for the study of folklore. He has published Contes Popu laires de la Haute-Bretagne (1880-2), Littérature Orale de la Haute-Bretagne (1881), Contes de Terre et de Mer (1883), Le Blason Populaire de la France (1884). Contes des Provinces de France (1884), Coutumes Populaires de la Haute-Bretagne (1886), Contes de la Haute-Bretagne (1894), and Le Folklore des Pêcheurs; also bibliographies of French folklore. Since 1885 he has been editor of the Revue des Traditions Popu laires.

Secale, a genus of hardy annual grasses, bearing their flowers in a dense terminal spike. The principal species is S. cereale, the common rye.

Secant. See TRIGONOMETRY. Secaucus, bor., Hudson co., N. J., 4 m. N. of Jersey City, on the Lackawanna R. R. It has manufactures of pearl buttons, chemicals, etc., and a large plant

Secchi

supplying power for the Hoboken, Rutherford, and Paterson street railroads. Pop. (1910) 4,740.

Secchi, ANGELO (1818-78), Italian astronomer, was born at Reggio in the Emilia, and entered the Jesuit order in 1833. Driven into exile by the revolution of 1848, he came to the U. S. and found refuge in Washington, D. C., where, as professor of mathematics and physics at Georgetown College, he lived until 1849, when he returned to Italy and was appointed by Pius IX. to succeed De Vico as director of the Roman College Observatory. He made an extensive series of double-star observations, successfully photographed in Spain the totally eclipsed sun (July 18, 1860), and was one of the first to record prominences spectroscopically by daylight. In 1863 he established the present system of classifying stellar spectra, which he completed by the discovery of carbon stars in 1867. He published in 1864 an able theory of universal phenomena, entitled Unità delle Forze Fisiche, and embodied his solar researches in Le Soleil

(1870). He also wrote Researches on Electrical Rheometry (Smithsonian Contributions, vol. viii. 1852). See J. Pohle's Lebensbild (2d ed. 1904).

Secession, a term of modern origin applied to the process by which a state, a member of a confederacy or federation, withdraws and resumes all powers formerly delegated to the central government. In the United States the term is used to denominate the right once claimed by various states of withdrawing, at will from the Union and resuming independent existence. The theory of secession is based on the idea that the individual states are still sovereign. Secession, then, is the act of a sovereign state and must be distinguished from revolution. The idea and practice of secession date back to the Greek leagues. In modern European history we meet instances in Switzerland, Germany, and the Scandinavian

The

countries. right of withdrawal is one claimed usually by a weak state or section as a protection against the encroachments of a stronger state or section.

Seldom is there an assertion of such a right among Latin peoples; it seems to be due to the survival of the Teutonic ideas of local and individual liberty, and is found among people who are historically opposed to a strong centralized govern

ment.

The question of secession became a practical one in America after the formation (1789) of the Federal Union under the Constitution framed in 1787. The

79

states in fact withdrew from the old confederation in order to form the new one, in which the question of the sovereignty of the states was not expressly settled. The question of secession was first mentioned by Elbridge Gerry in the convention of 1787. He preIdicted the 'secession' of certain states unless their interests were cared for. In 1795 the suggestion of secession was heard in Kentucky, a western state which felt that its welfare was neglected by the states to the east; and in the same year in Connecticut a faction, fearing control of the Federal government by the South, advocated the secession of New England. The election of John Adams to the Presidency stopped this, however.

From 1800 to 1815 secession was used as a threat by the New England section of states, dissatisfied by the Southern influence in the central government. It was talked of when Jefferson was elected in 1800. The purchase of Louisiana (1803) was denounced as unconstitutional by New England, which foresaw a transfer of political power to the South and West; and the assertion was made that the dissatisfied states ought to withdraw. In 1804 the candidacy of Aaron Burr for the governorship in New York was supposed to be a movement preliminary to a New York and New England secession. Josiah Quincy of Massachusetts, spokesman for New England, declared in Congress in 1811 that if Louisiana were admitted as a state, it would virtually dissolve the Union, and that it would be the duty of the states to separate, either peaceably or by force. He was called to order, but the House decided that he was in order. The most serious movement toward the secession of New England grew out of the objections of that section to the policy of the central government; especially was there opposition to the operation of the Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts and to the War of 1812. The right and duty of the New England states to withdraw and establish a new republic was constantly discussed in that section, and in Dec., 1814-Jan., 1815, a secret convention of delegates from these states was held at Hartford. It was then charged that secession was contemplated and discussed, but the convention resolved to remonstrate first with the Federal administration, and the early close of the war put an end to the movement. The journal of the Hartford Convention, which was printed in 1833, has nothing of secession; but, as Babcock, the latest historian of the period, says, 'it was always suspected that the journal reflected neither the tem

Secession

per nor the decisions of the convention.' Thus ends the first period of dissatisfaction with the Union. Talk of separation was general throughout the Union before 1815; objections to it were merely objections to its expediency, not denials of the abstract right. The idea of nationality was of slow growth.

Two legal text-books published early in the century are important in the history of the theory of secession. In 1803 Tucker, a Virginian, published an edition of Blackstone, with an appendix, in which he developed the theory that each state was sovereign and might at will withdraw from the Union, resume the powers delegated by the Constitution to the Federal government, and continue as an independent power. This was the first clear statement of the whole theory, and it indicated also a modus operandi. The other book was Rawle, On the Constitution, published in 1825. Rawle was a Pennsylvania judge. He maintained that each state was sovereign and that secession was a matter for the people of each state to decide, the central government having no authority to prevent it. This book was used from about 1825 to 1850 as a text at the United States Military Academy. The counsel of Jefferson Davis were prepared (1867) to offer this book as evidence in case that representative of secession should be brought to trial. General Lee mentioned the fact that he had studied Rawle.

After the War of 1812 secession is next heard of in the slavery controversy, and, except for a faction of abolitionists who demanded a separation from the slave-holding South, it is hereafter the Southern states that threaten to secede in order to protect their peculiar institution slavery from unfriendly Northern interference. The two sections were steadily growing apart, economically and socially as well as politically. Against unfriendly interference and against laws considered unconstitutional, the South developed two remedies: nullification (q.v.) within the Union and secession from the Union. Each one was based upon the idea of state sovereignty. But, as a rule, those who believed in secession repudiated nullification as a weak, halfway measure. In 1832-33, during the nullification troubles, there was a party in South Carolina called 'Unionists.' These 'Unionists' were believers in secession, not in nullification, as a remedy for the evils complained of.

In 1835 Texas seceded from Mexico and soon wanted to join the Union. In 1843 in a debate on the proposed annexation of Texas to the United States, John

Quincy Adams declared that the annexation of Texas would be the signal for the dissolution of the Union-the Eastern states would then be justified in withdrawing. In 1845, William Lloyd Garrison, representing the abolitionists, advocated a secession of the North from the South and the formation of a free republic.

After the Mexican War the question of slavery in the territories embittered the sectional controversy. It was seen that the South was gradually losing her power before the free states. So from 1848 to 1852 there was considerable discussion by the states of the lower South of the advisability of seceding. The leading states were South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Texas, the latter just admitted to the Union. Several states were on the verge of secession, but the gradually subsided

movement

after the adoption of the Compromise of 1850. The last speech of John C. Calhoun, in 1850, was an unwilling and gloomy prophecy of the separation which came a few years later. In 1860 the United States Senate adopted a series of resolutions introduced by Jefferson Davis, which formed the platform of those who looked to secession as a final refuge.

But not until 1860-1861 was the project of secession finally put into practice. It was a direct outcome of the Presidential election of 1860, in which a sectional party, pledged to the prohibition of slavery in the territories and unfriendly to the institution in the states, was victorious. It had been generally understood that the election of Lincoln would be the signal for secession. The causes of secession, as given, were the attitude of the North in regard to slavery, the election of a tional President, the nullification of federal statutes by the 'personal liberty' laws of the various Northern states, the incitement of slaves to insurrection, as in Texas and at Harper's Ferry, the evident determination of the North to shut the South out from the territories, etc.

sec

Thus secession was, it was said, for the purpose of protecting Southern slave property, maintaining the social order, and preventing political subordination. As a matter of fact, secession was simply an expression of the fact that the South was practically one nation and the North another and unlike one; state sovereignity was no more a fact than was national unity; further, secession was rather a social than a political movement-the average Southern man knew and cared little about. political theories, but was convinced that only in the continuance of slavery was there safety for the social order. The theory of seces

sion happened to fit the needs of the

case.

The first state to secede was South Carolina. Here the legislature called a convention which on December 20, 1860, passed unanimously an ordinance repealing the South Carolina ordinance of 1788, which ratified the Federal Constitution. Powers delegated to the United States government by the Constitution were resumed, and plans were formed for entering into a Southern Confederacy as soon as other states should secede. Ten other states seceded as follows: Mississippi, January 9, 1861, by a vote of 78 to 7; Florida, January 10, by a vote of 62 to 7; Alabama, January 11, by a vote of 61 to 39; Georgia, January 19, by a vote of 208 to 89; Louisiana, January 26, by a vote of 113 to 17; Texas, February 1, by a vote of 166 to 7; Arkansas, May 6, by a vote of 69 to 1; North Carolina, May 20, unanimously; Virginia, May 23, by a vote of 103 to 46; and Tennessee, June 8, by a vote of the people. In Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri there was strong sympathy with the secession movement, but the Northern troops, aiding the Union element, held these states in the Union. In Texas Governor Houston refused to convene the legislature which should call a convention. So an irregular convention was elected. At last he called the legislature which legalized the convention. In Virginia the ordinance was submitted to a vote of the people and was overwhelmingly adopted by the people of eastern Virginia, but the western counties voted against it and refused to go into the Confederacy. In Tennessee no convention was held, but the legislature submitted the proposition to a vote of the people and it was adopted by a large majority, the strongest opposition being in East Tennessee. In all the early conventions were two parties, the 'secessionists' or precipitators,' and the 'co-operationists,' the first urging immediate separate secession and confederation afterward, the other advocating an understanding between the Southern states before secession in order that all might secede in a body. In none of the conventions except in Virginia were there any 'submissionists' or delegates in favor of remaining in the Union under all circumstances. In no state except South Carolina was the socalled 'Black Belt' element in control; the other states of the lower South had what was called the 'white basis' of representation. This gave the power to the 'white' counties.

The six states first to secede sent delegates to a provisional Congress that met February 4, 1861, in Montgomery, Ala. After the

framing of a provisional constitution, a permanent' constitution was adopted on March 11 for the 'Confederate States of America,' to which the other seceding states were admitted.

Upon the question of secession Northern sentiment was divided. Some were indifferent, others glad to be rid of the troublesome South; few at first advocated coercion. Horace Greeley in the New York Tribune said, 'Let them go.' President Buchanan denied the right of secession, but also declared that under the laws he had no power to coerce the Southern states. Congress refused to give him the legislation he asked for; so the Federal government did nothing except hold two forts, Sumter and Pickens, that had not been surrendered. When Lincoln became President he declared secession a nullity and announced that he would enforce the Federal laws in the Southern states. An attempt made to relieve Fort Sumter caused the bombardment and capture of the fort by the Confederates. At once, on April 15, 1861, Lincoln called for troops to put down an 'insurrection.' The four years' war that followed, resulting in victory for the North, effectively put an end to the theory of secession.

References: Jefferson Davis, Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (2 vols., N. Y., 1881); B. J. Sage, Republic of Republics (Boston); Alexander H. Stephens, Constitutional View of the Late War between the States (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1868, 1870); John W. Burgess, The Civil War and the Constitution (vol. i., N. Y., 1901); J. F. Rhodes, History of the U. S. Since the Compromise of 1850 (vol. ii., N. Y., 1895); J. L. M. Curry, The Southern States of the American Union (New York, 1896); J. L. M. Curry, Civil HisStates tory of the Confederate (Richmond, 1901); John C. Reed, The Brothers' War (Boston, 1905). See Secession Churches. PRESBYTERIANS.

Seckendorff, VEIT LUDWIG VON (1626-92), German statesman, jurist, and historian, born at Herzogenaurach, near Erlangen; became chancellor of Halle University (1692). He wrote Der Deutsche Fürstenstaat (1655), Compendium Historia Ecclesi astica (1664), Der Christenstaat (1685), and Commentarius Historicus et Apologeticus de Lutheranismo (1688-92). See Schreber's Historia Viti Ludwig a Seckendorff (1733).

Second. See MINUTE.

Second Adventists, the general name of various religious bodies in the United States, whose distinctive tenet is the belief that the Second Advent of Christ is imminent. (See ADVENT, THE SEC