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and many pieces for the piano and organ.

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Paine, ROBERT TREAT (17311814), American politician, born at Boston. He graduated Harvard in 1749, and after preaching for a few years, was admitted to the bar in 1759. In 1770 he conducted the prosecution of Capt. Preston, charged with responsibility for the 'Boston Massacre.' He was a member of the General Court (1773-74), and was selected to manage the impeachment of Chief Justice Oliver. From 1774 to 1778 he was a member of the Continental Congress, and was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. From 1780 to 1790 he was attorney-general of Massachusetts, and was judge of the Supreme Judicial Court from 1790 to 1804, when he resigned.

Paine, ROBERT TREAT (17731811), American poet, son of the foregoing, was born at Taunton, Mass., and in 1801 obtained from the Mass. legislature permission to alter his name from Thomas to that of his father. He graduated (1792) at Harvard, and on taking his A.M. degree at the same institution in 1795, recited his poem, "The Invention of Letters,' for which he received $1,500. Paine edited the Federal Orrery at Boston from 1794 to 1797, and during his life was more or less associated with the theatre. At one time he studied law with Theophilus Parsons at Newburyport, and was admitted to the bar in Boston in 1802, but did not practise long. For his poem, "The Ruling Passion, he received $1,200, and for his song, 'Adams and Liberty,' $750, being record prices for verse in those days. His last years were passed in poverty and wretched

ness.

A posthumous edition of his Works, in Verse and Prose, was published in 1812.

Paine, ROBERT TREAT 1835), American philanthropist, greatgrandson of R. T. Paine (17311814), was born in Boston, and graduated (1855) at Harvard, whose law school he attended. He was admitted to the bar in Boston in 1859, and practised until 1870, when he retired, and subsequently devoted himself to philanthropic work. In 1879 he organized the Wells Memorial Workingmen's Institute, of which he became president, and he was an officer of other workingmen's beneficiary associations. After 1878 he was president of the Associated Charities of Boston, and in 1890, with his wife, endowed a trust in behalf of the Robert Treat Paine Association, a charitable organization, with $200,000. He was a member of the Massachusetts legislature in 1884.

Paine, THOMAS (1737-1809), American political agitator and

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writer, was born in Thetford, county of Norfolk, England, Jan. 29, 1737 (N. S.). His father was a Quaker, and his early religious training was in accord with the views of that sect. He attended the grammar school at Thetford, and early developed a mechanical bent. In 1759 he established himself as a stay-maker at Sandwich, county of Kent, and in 1762 he became an exciseman; but he was dismissed, Aug. 27, 1765, for 'stamping,-recording as inspected, that is, places which he had not visited. He resumed his trade of stay-making, supporting himself with difficulty, and on occasion teaching school. In 1768, he was appointed excise officer at Lewes, county of Sussex, but in 1774, he was again dismissed from the service, this time on mingled charges of neglect of business, accumulated debts, etc. On the advice of Franklin he decided to go to America, and shortly sailed for Philadelphia, arriving Nov. 30, 1774.

The revolutionary agitation, then rapidly approaching its crisis, offered a fertile field for Paine's peculiar talents. For about a year and a half he was editor of the Pennsylvania Magazine, the publication of which began in January, 1775, and a frequent contributor to its pages. In January, 1776, the publication of Common Sense made him for the moment the best known and most influential political writer in America. In spite of obvious crudity and exaggeration, the argument in favor of independence which the work contained was unanswerable. Authorities are agreed in ascribing to Common Sense the principal credit for turning the scales in favor of independence. Other pamphlets and letters followed in rapid succession. Paine had some share in framing the Pennsylvania constitution of 1776. In the same year he enlisted as a private, and he acted for a time as aide-de-camp_to Gen. Nathanael Greene. In December appeared the first number of the Crisis, beginning with the famous words, These are the times that try men's souls.' The paper, written at night before the campfire, was read to the army, and everywhere aroused enthusiasm. On Jan. 21, 1777, Paine was appointed by the Pennsylvania council of safety the secretary of a commission to treat with the Indians at Easton. On April 17 he became secretary to the committee of foreign affairs of the Continental Congress. In the controversy between Congress and Silas Deane, Paine took the side of Congress, and attacked Gouverneur Morris, who supported Deane. As a consequence, he was removed in January, 1779, from his secretaryship. In Feb

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ruary, 1781, he accompanied John Laurens to France, to obtain, if possible, much needed assistance, returning in the fall with money and supplies. Throughout this period he was very poor, living for the most part at Bordentown, N. J., and neglected by Congress, notwithstanding the efforts of Washington and others in his behalf. In 1784 New York presented him with a confiscated loyalist estate of 277 acres at New Rochelle, where his monument now stands; and he hoped for similar action elsewhere. Pennsylvania voted him £500, and Congress eventually granted him $3,000, not as payment for services rendered, but as a gratuity.

The appearance, in November, 1790, of Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution, called out a rejoinder from Paine under the title of The Rights of Man, in which the principles of the revolution were defended and the influence of American example set forth. The book was dedicated to Washington, was translated into French, and made a great impression. The British Government, alarmed at the spread of revolutionary sentiment, undertook to suppress it and to punish the author. In December, 1792, Paine was tried for high treason in the court of king's bench. He was ably defended by Erskine, whose plea on this occasion for the right of free speech is a notable example of forensic oratory; but he was convicted and outlawed. He had already gone to France, where the three departments of Oise, Puy-de-Dôme, and Pas-deCalais chose him to represent them in the convention. He was on the committee which drafted a new constitution for France, and was an active and prominent member of the convention; but his inability to speak or write French well kept him from much direct debate. He participation in

sought persistently and skilfully to save the king, thereby incurring the hostility of Robespierre and other Terrorist leaders. The order of June, 1793, for the imprisonment of foreigners caused his retirement from the convention, and warned him of his peril. On Dec. 27 he was arrested by order of the Committee of Public Safety, and confined in the Luxembourg prison, where he remained until November, 1794. It seems clear that his imprisonment was in part the result of a discreditable intrigue to which Gouverneur Morris, the American minister, was a party, and that he narrowly escaped the guillotine.

The first part of Paine's third great work, the Age of Reason, was completed just before his imprisonment, and published in 1794.

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It was this work, with its crude deism and violent criticism of orthodox Christianity, that caused Paine to be branded as an atheist. In November, 1794, he was liberated at the request of Monroe, who had succeeded Morris American minister, and re-entered the convention, remaining until the establishment of the Directory in October, 1795. His Decline and Fall of the English System of Finance (1796), was translated into many European languages and attracted great attention. He returned to the United States in the fall of 1802. He found marked popular prejudice against him on religious grounds, and was freely charged with moral lapses of which he was innocent. He lived for a time at Bordentown, but shortly removed to New Rochelle. He died in New York, June 8, 1809. His numerous Writings have been edited by M. D. Conway (4 vols. 1894-96), who has also written a valuable Life (2 vols. 1892).

Painesville, city, O., co. seat of Lake co., 28 m. E.N.E. of Cleveland, 3 m. from L. Erie, on the Grand R., and on the B. and O., the L. Shore and Mich. S., and the N. Y., Chi., and St. L. R. Rs. Lake Erie College is situated here. The city is residential in nature. Considerable commercial importance attaches to Painesville, because of its proximity to Fairport, on L. Erie, where there is a good harbor. Ore docks are also situated here. Some of the industries are the manufacture of veneering machines, brick machinery, foundry and machine shop products, flour, hardware specialties, sashes and blinds, metallic oilcloth bindings, power corn shellers, zinc binding, school supplies, etc. The city has a grain elevator and large nurseries. It is situated in a rich and productive farming district. hospital and a public library figure among the important buildings. At the city, a stone viaduct spans the river. The waterworks and the street lighting plants are owned and operated by the city. The first settlement here was made in 1798, incorporation took place in 1832, and the present charter was granted in 1902. Pop. (1900) 5,024.

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Pains and Penalties, ACTS OF. In England the legislation for imposing punishment less than death without trial before a court on some person guilty of treason or other high crimes. Such acts are unconstitutional in the United States under the clause of the Constitution forbidding bills of attainder.

Painted Desert, Ariz., the plateau included between the cañons of the Marble and Colorado rivers. Its name is due to the remarkable coloring of the rocks.

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Painted Lady. See VANESSA. Painter, WILLIAM (1540-94), English author, a native of either Kent or Middlesex, became headmaster of Sevenoaks school (1560) and clerk of the ordnance in the Tower (1561), holding the latter post till his death. Painter's great work was The Palace of Pleasure (1562), a collection of a hundred stories translated from Greek, Latin, Italian, and French. It was the source whence Shakespeare and other dramatists derived plots.

Painting. The art of painting of representing objects on a flat surface by means of colorpigments, earths, or minerals, mixed with water or an adhesive medium such as oil-is coexistent with the earliest known civilizations. Painted tiles have been found in Babylon, historical wall paintings in India, Egypt, and Mexico. In Greece, painting as an art did not rise to equal perfection with sculpture partly owing to a limited knowledge of available pigments. Tradition tells of realistic painting of fruit, and of portraiture. A few portraits and wall paintings by Greek hands exist; in Rome and Pompeii specimens remain of Greco-Roman frescoes of figures, architecture, animals, and arabesques.

MEDIEVAL PAINTING: Italian. -The development of mediaval painting was dependent upon the rise of Christianity, upon the revival of classical study, and upon the introduction of printing. During the Byzantine empire the Greek tradition in painting survived in a lifeless convention, feebleness of drawing, and elaborate use of gold in backgrounds and draperies, as, for instance, in the historic mosaics of Ravenna. The later mosaics of Palermo and Monreale show the quickening influence of the new religion and the reawakening of artistic possibilities. Pisa was the cradle of the young art, and, later, those Tuscan towns-Florence, Siena, etc.- that inherited Etruscan taste. Biblical stories were carved for ornamentation by the Pisani, and their influence in working from natural rather than conventional models communicated itself to the painters. Cimabue endeavored to express a sense of life in his Madonnas. Duccio of Siena was the first to paint Biblical stories with groups of figures, and his followers in Siena were Buoninsegna, Simone Martini, Lippo Memmi, Lorenzetti, graceful pietists; and later, Sano di Pietro and Matteo di Giovanni. Giotto was the true liberator of the art: he covered part of the walls of the church at Assisi and the arena at Padua with frescoes, and developed the idea of a purely

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decorative art, of which Puvis de Chavannes is the modern exemplar. Orcagna introduced brighter color and more ornate style. Fra Angelico was the last of the great pietists, whose work had been to produce painted records of religious mysteries for the unlettered.

THE RENAISSANCE: Italian.Florence became the great centre of the arts during the fifteenth century. Masolino and Masaccio were naturalists, and began the study of the nude; Lippo Lippi and Botticelli depicted definite action and dramatic expression, and the latter painted allegorical and classical subjects. Roselli, Ghirlandaio, Fra Bartolommeo were vigorous realists. Pollaiuolo and Verrocchio were anatomical students, and Leonardo was the first to completely master form and technique. Signorelli was a powerful delineator of the nude and of movement in grouped figures, and he strongly influenced Michael Angelo, the Titan of the Renaissance. Andrea del Sarto, the last great Florentine, was a consummate draughtsman and the most graceful colorist. Giotto's influence spread throughout the greater part of Italy, and various allied schools arose. The Umbrian school flourished from the end of the 14th to the beginning of the 16th century, and contained various centres-e.g. Gubbio and San Sepolchro-and produced such painters as Gentile da Fabriano, Niccolo da Foligno, Piero della Francesca, and culminated in Perugino.

Early in the 15th century oil painting was introduced from Flanders by way of Naples and Venice, and, having greater possibilities than tempera, gave a great impetus to the art. Moreover, the invention of printing and the greater circulation of books tended to make painting no longer the exclusive exponent of religion. Mundane subjects, classical_and allegorical, were chosen. Easel pictures came into vogue, walls of palaces were decorated, and portrait-painting became general.

Although Raphael was born at Urbino and worked under Perugino, he is in his mature development the head of the Roman school. The Milanese school was founded in the 15th century by Vincenzo Foggia and Borgognone. Leonardo da Vinci, the Florentine, settled in Milan and created a school of Lombard painters, such as Salaino, Beltraffio, Luino, Solario, and Sodoma. Ferrara produced the vigorous draughtsmen Cosimo Tura, Ercole Grandi, and Dosso Dossi, the colorist. One of the most influential of the northern schools was that of Padua, under Squarcione and Andrea Mantegna. There the

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Bellini studied, and they in turn, with the Vivarini, were the founders of the great Venetian school of colorists. Of late growth, a sane realistic art was developed by that powerful seafaring free people-an art independent of church patronage, dependent largely on the favorable conditions of light and atmosphere in a sea-girt, sun-swept city. In the 16th century it developed its technical qualities to a high degree of strength and breadth of handling and superb coloration in the luxuriant pomp of stately Venetian life. Among the great men were Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, and Veronese. The Venetian provinces, Brescia, and Verona contributed their share of work, differentiated by variations of conditions. Parma

was the chief scene of the activities of and the wide influence exercised by Correggio (d. 1534), with his cheerful sense of life and fine treatment of swimming sunlight in atmosphere. Thereafter came the decline of art, with loss of spontaneity and individuality. Against the mannerists exaggerated imitators of Michael Angelo and Raphael-arose the eclectics of Bologna in the 16th and 17th centuries, under the Carracci, who, lacking spontaneity and native impulse, strove to create a grand style by a combination of qualities borrowed from each school. Powerfully drawn compositions in skilful conventional methods were produced by Guido Reni, Domenichino, and Guercino. The Neapolitan school worked under Flemish influences in the 15th century, developed more individuality in the 18th, and was distinguished in the 17th by the naturalistic dramatic work of the Spanish Ribera, and of Salvator Rosa. The chief painters of the 18th century in Italy were the Venetians Tiepolo (a follower of Paolo Veronese), Canaletto, and Guardi.

German, Flemish, and Dutch.The birthplace of painting in the north was on the Lower Rhine, at Cologne and Maestricht. Religious subjects were painted on panels of wood; the dampness of the climate prohibited large fresco work. Altarpieces were executed in the guilds by unknown masters; Wilhelm of Cologne (d. 1378) is one of the earliest known painters. The execution is crudely realistic, dictated by a passionate search for truth, tinged with mysticism in the German artists, and lacking the sense of beauty of form, though vivid in color. Early German work and early Dutch work were closely allied, and the Germans were strongly influenced by the Van Eycks and their followers in the 15th century.

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Schongauer and Burgkmair were renowned engravers as well as painters; as also were Holbein and Dürer, with whom German painting reached its highest perfection, under the influence of the Italian renaissance.

The Flemish and Dutch schools flourished with the development and prosperity of the Low Countries. The Flemish Van Eycks were the great leaders, and their discovery of the use of oil as a medium opened out possibilities of brilliant coloring and finish previously unattainable. Their immediate followers were Van der Weyden, Bouts, and Memlinc. In the 16th century 'the Romanists' Van Orley, Mabuse, and Moro-worked under Italian influence; and later when the Spanish tyranny relaxed, the Flemish school reached its finest expression with Rubens and his pupils, Van Dyck and Teniers. At the head of the 'primitives' of the Dutch school stood Lucas van Leyden. In the 16th century men such as Roghman, Lastman, Swanenburgh, Cuyp, were the pioneers of the great development of painting in the

17th century. After the proclamation of independence and the new national development come Hals, De Keyser, Van der Helst (portraitists), Ruysdael and Hobbema (landscapists), Hondecoeter and Potter (animal painters), Van der Velde and Vliegers (sea painters), Jan Steen, Ostade, De Hoogh, and Terburg (genre painters), and the remarkable genius Rembrandt, the great representative of Protestant independent Holland.

Spanish. Spanish painting dates from the expulsion of the Moors, at the end of the 15th century. It developed under direct Italian inspiration, and under the sombre, restricting influence of the Spanish Church and the Inquisition. The national realistic style began with Ribalta and Zurbarán, and a group of characteristic portrait painters arose. Herrera and Pacheco were the immediate precursors of Velásquez, the greatest painter, as such, that has perhaps yet appeared. He and Murillo represent two opposite tendencies, though Murillo's democratic predilections were checked by the church. Goya, in the 18th century-painter and etcherwas the great representative and satirist of the Spanish people, and the forerunner of modern art in his choice of subject.

French. In its beginning, during the 15th and 16th centuries, French painting was wholly influenced by Italian art.

In the

17th century Poussin, though he resided in Italy, showed the first distinctively national quality in his work. Claude Lorraine was

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the first to study sunshine. In the 18th century art was the reflection of the artificial gay court of Louis xv., and produced the remarkable group of painters Boucher, Watteau, Lancret, and Pater. Chardin (1699-1779) was the first painter of the bourgoisie.

MODERN PAINTING: French. With the French revolution came a change. Greuze was a painter of domestic interiors and of por-. traits. With the first empire there was a return to classical painting under the historical painter David, which culminated with Ingres. Gros, the pioneer of modern military painting, marks a transition; and with the great romantic movement of 1830 the finest period of national French art began-revolutionary, democratic, finally scientific-an art which has led and influenced the development of national art throughout Europe and America. Géricault and Delacroix were the first leaders; Courbet and Manet, the realists, followed; and the remarkable group of socalled Barbizon painters-Corot, Millet, Rousseau, Diaz, Daubigny, and the animal painter Troyon. In their wake arose the modern school of 'impressionism.' Its importance and influence were demonstrated later by the formation of the 'new Salon,' by Meissonier, the decorative artist Puvis de Chavannes, and others, as a protest against the academic conventions and methods of the salon with its academic tendencies. The last quarter of the 19th century has produced painters of high rank. Carolus Duran, Bonnat, Benjamin Constant, Carrière (portrait painters); Gustave Moreau, Aman - Jean (symbolists); Bastien-Lepage and his followers, L'Hermitte Roll, Gervex, of the plein-air school; Degas, Besnard, Monet, Pissarro (interpreters of motion and light); Cabanel, Bouguereau (later classicists); Cazin, Pointelin, Laurens, (landscapists); Detaille, De Neuville, Berne-Bellecourt (military painters), are a few of the many men of varying talent and genius who have raised French art to its present pre-eminent rank.

British. The demand for painting in England during the 16th and 17th centuries was supplied chiefly by German, Dutch, and Flemish artists, the most influential among whom were Holbein and Van Dyck. Modern English painting began in the 18th century with Hogarth, that keen satirist and genre painter who reflected the life of his times, and afterwards was followed by men such as Wilkie, Mulready, Faed, and Frith. In Protestant England there was no demand for religious pictures, and there arose a group of powerful por

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trait painters-Reynolds, Gainsborough, Romney, Hoppner, Law rence, Raeburn. Historical painting was the ideal of many who, however, never attained to high achievement-e.g. West, Barry, Haydon, Copley, and Ward. The great school of English landscape arose also in the 18th century. Richard Wilson, the Welshman, was the father of the art, though greatly under Italian influence. Gainsborough produced the first purely English landscape, that was brought to perfection by Constable, the Norwich school, and Turner.

The art of painting in watercolors may be considered a national British product. Girtin was the first to use direct tints; and Turner, during his long life, brought the art to perfection, together with De Wint, Cox, Prout, Müller, Hunt, and Varley. The realistic influence of Constable and the idealistic influence of Turner produced new developments in nature painting: on the one hand by Línnell, Halswell, Leader, and Brett, the marine painter; on the other by the pastoralists, idyllists, and imaginative landscapists, from Mark Anthony and Lawson to Mason and Walker, from Blake to Palmer and Calvaert. The influence of the writings of Ruskin fostered the rise of the spiritually and poetically artistic pre-Raphaelite movement, headed by Holman Hunt, Rossetti, and Millais. Pre-eminent among popular subject painters of the Victorian era are Phillips, Chalmers, Pettie, Long, Marcus Stone, Orchardson; and at the head of literary and decorative painting, Leighton, G. F. Watts, and Burne-Jones.

In the last quarter of the 19th century French and Dutch art greatly affected British painting. Various schools have arisen, such as the impressionists; the openair painters, such as La Thangue, Clausen, and the Newlyn school; and in Scotland three distinct art centres in Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and Glasgow. The 'Glasgow men'-Guthrie, Lavery, Melville, Walton, and Henry -have produced a wholesome effect in their harmonious handling of color. Among prominent portraitists are Allan Ramsay, Watson Gordon, Holl, Sir George Reid, Richmond, Herkomer, Collier, Shannon, Guthrie, Peacock; and at the dawn of the 20th century the prospect is encouraging as well in landscape as in genre and decorative art.

Spanish.-Modern art arose with Mariano Fortuny, whose brilliant handling of color, startling chiaroscuro, and Oriental gemlike quality of effect were fully developed after a visit to Morocco. His influence was pow

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erful in Italy, where he lived. His immediate followers were Madrazo, Cassado, Casanova, and Zamaçois. The chief living painter is the great decorative artist of Spain, Pradilla, realist and naturalist. Among the younger men of distinction are the portraitist Gaudara and the plein-air marine painter Sorrida y Bastida.

Italian. - Modern Italy produced one man of outstanding talent, the late Segantini, isolated and individual. Modern painting awoke under the influence of the Spaniard Fortuny, with a group of brilliant rococo painters, Morelli -a fine religious painter alsoMichetti, Dalbano the naturalist, and Favretto, the depictor of modern Venetian life. Later, under the influence of modern French and English painting and of the Spaniard Pradilla, a development has taken place in nature painting by Costa, Ettore Tito, Luigi Nono, Carmicci, Belloni, the portraitist Hilesi, and in particular Fragiacomo, the finest water-color painter of Italy.

German. Modern German painting in its various racial branches awoke, after a period of stagnation, at the hands of the 'Nazarenes,' pseudo- classicists, and theorizers, under the leadership of Cornelius and Kaulbachonce great names,. now disregarded-whose merit is to have revived fresco-painting. Eduard Steinle (1810-86), the Viennese, is the one representative Germanic painter of the group. Schadow and his Düsseldorf school led the way from preaching in paint to a realization of the true realm of art. Rethel, a fine draughtsman, and the Viennese romanticist Schwind were the strongest men of the mid-19th century. The influence of French and Dutch art became prevalent, and a new movement led by Feuerbach, the German Leighton, and Carl Piloty, the historical painter, resulted in the formation of the powerful Munich school. Hans Makart, the Viennese colorist, had a meteoric reputation; good work was done by Gabriel Max, the Bohemian, and by Munkacsy, the Hungarian, whose theatrically dramatic painting has a touch of genius. Adam and Hoss were military, painters; Koch, Rottman, and Trübner were important in landscape. Adolf Menzel, painter and etcher, stands pre-eminent during the last third of the 19th century as the great realistic delineator of German history, of German working life. Leibl and Lenbach are distinguished portrait painters. The latest developments of Teutonic painting have been produced by Liebermann, the Millet of Germany; Boeck

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lin, the great lyricist in color; Thoma, the landscapist; the fantasists Stuck and Klinger; and Von Uhde, the leader of the new idealism, whose idealisticrealistic treatment of religious themes had a wide influence throughout Europe.

Dutch. After a long period of stagnation Dutch art drew in new life from the romantic movement in France through the instrumentality of Josef Israëls, a characteristic painter of Dutch life. His contemporaries in the new movement were Mesdag, the sea painter; Bisschop; Neuhuys; Jongkind; Mauve, poet of nature; Breitner; and the three remarkable brothers, Matthew, Jacob, and Willem Maris. Among the younger men are Bauer, painter and etcher; Van Looy, colorist; Jan Toorop and Prikker, symbolists; Karpen and Tholen, expressionists in naturepainting.

Belgian.-Boulanger, the romanticist, is the father of modern Belgian art; De Groux is the Flemish exponent of the life of the working people; Dubois and Stobbaerts of the kermesses of the Netherlands. Under Boulanger arose the Tervueren school, including such painters as Buron, Heymans, Claus, Baertstrom, Marie Collaert, Courtens, Verstraete, and Clays, the sea painter. Alfred Stevens ranks as a master; Khnopff is the chief symbolist.

Scandinavian.-Among Scandinavian nations painting as an art dates from the 19th century, and these have not yet produced a painter of the first order. Danish painting began with Eckersberg, but was checked by an exodus of painters to Italy. After 1850 Skovgaard, Block, and Zahrtman led a new development of romantic landscape painting. Since 1875 Kröger, the greatest living Danish painter, Johansen, the impressionist, Paulsen, Kyhm, and Pedersen, the colorist, have produced a genuine national school, further strengthened by the society of 'new salonists,' founded in 1891. Malmström was the first important Swedish painter; later the brilliant Haeckert and the landscapist Berg produced racial work. The modern leaders are the pleinair realists Salmson, Hagborg, Echström, and Larsson, and the brilliant painter and etcher Anders Zorn, who vividly represents Sweden abroad. Norwegian painting is bolder, more independent. Its most modern representatives are the naturists Peterssen, Munthe, and especially Fritz Thaulow, and the religious realist Skredsvig.

Russian. Russian painting, other than of ikons, is a product of the 19th century. At first