Palæotherium

Williams's Geological Biology (1895).

Palæotherium, a genus of fossil mammals belonging to the ungulates. Of living animals it resembled most closely the tapir. Some species were as large as the rhinoceros, but most of them were much smaller. They had three toes on each foot, with rudiments of a fourth; the head was elongated, and is believed to have carried a prehensile snout. Each molar tooth bore two ridges. Palæotherium occurs in the Upper Eocene formation, and is found in France, Switzerland, and Hampshire (England).

Palæozoic, the earlier fossiliferous geological systems up to and including the Permian. They rest upon the Archæan (Precambrian), which contain no fossils, and are succeeded by the Mesozoic. The term means ancient life. In this era the first authentic fossils are found, but the forms represent several important classes of organisms showing complex development. This has led palæontologists to believe that life existed

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was sent to France, where he remained until peace was concluded (December, 1813).

Palagonite, a fine dark red pulverulent rock, found usually in thin layers between ancient flows of basaltic lava, and known to occur in Iceland, Antrim, and Teneriffe. It is really a weathered and oxidized basic tuff or ash-bed, composed of shreds of black volcanic glass, pumice, and rock fragments. Palagonite is found also among the red clays which cover a large part of the bed of the ocean, derived either from floated pumiceous volcanic cinders, or from the ejecta of submarine volcanoes.

Palamedes, in ancient Greek legends, was the prince of Nauplia in Argos, and one of the heroes who sailed against Troy, among whom he rivalled Odysseus in craft and wisdom. Odysseus accused him of treacherously communicating with the Trojans, and he was stoned to death.

Palamkotta, PALAMCOTTAH, or PALAYAM-KOTTAI, munic. tn., Tinnevelly dist., Madras, India;

throughout a very long preceding era whose exact life record is destroyed. This interpretation is indicated in the term Eozoic, or dawn-of-life era, separating the Paleozoic and the Azoic, or nolife era, proper. By some geologists they are subdivided into the Protozoic (Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian) and the Deutozoic or Deuterozoic (Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian).

was

Palæstra originally merely part of a gynasium. At Athens, however, there appear to have been palestræ quite distinct from the gymnasia. Among the Romans, though there were no public places for athletic exercises, people of wealth erected such buildings as an addition to their houses.

Palafox y Melzi, JosÉ DE, DUKE OF SARAGOSSA (1780-1847), Spanish soldier, offered a vigorous resistance to the French on their invasion of the Peninsula, which culminated in his magnificent defence of Saragossa from August, 1808, until February, 1809.

On the fall of the city he

an important Church of England Missionary station. Pop. (1901) 39,545.

Palanquin, or PALKI, a kind of litter used in India for the conveyance of travellers. It is of wood, in shape like an oblong box, and has movable sides. Its size allows the traveller to lie down or to sit up. It is carried by four bearers, by means of two poles passed through rings attached to the palanquin.

Palate, the roof of the mouth, is divided into the hard palate in front and the soft palate behind. The hard palate arches over to meet the gums in front and on either side, and is formed of periosteum, covered by mucous membrane. The back part of the soft palate hangs free, curying downwards and backwards. The velum (veil) is another name for it, since it hangs as a partial veil between the mouth and the pharynx. The middle point of its posterior margin hangs down as the uvula.

Diseases. The palate is liable to congenital deformity, known

Palatine

as cleft palate. It may also suffer from ulceration and perforation as the result of disease, in addi tion to inflammation. The rashes of certain infectious diseases appear on the mucous membrane of the palate and cheeks before they are seen on the skin. In the case of measles, Koplik's spots' (first described by Koplik of New York) may be found in the mouth twenty-four hours before the rash appears on the skin.

Palatinate, THE, consisted originally of the Upper Palatinate, with Amberg as its capital, which now forms the Bavarian district of the Upper Palatinate and part of Upper Franconia, and the Lower or Rhine Palatinate on both sides of the Upper Rhine. The present Palatinate (Ger. Pfalz) is the district of the kingdom of Bavaria on the left side of the Rhine. Its capital is Spires, and it has an area of 2,289 sq. m., and a population (1900) of 831,678.

In 1156 the Emperor Frederick 1. gave to his half-brother Conrad the palatinate of the Rhine. Conrad formed a state which had Heidelberg for its capital. By the Golden Bull in 1356 the ruler of the palatinate was chosen as one of the seven electors, and, as grand seneschal, held one of the great offices of the imperial household. On the deposition of the Emperor Wenceslaus in 1400, Rupert III., Elector Palatine, was elected emperor. In the 16th century the Elector Lewis v. embraced the Protestant cause, and his brother, Frederick II., who joined Maurice of Saxony, was compelled to submit to Charles v. In 1562 Frederick III., Elector Palatine, took the position of leader of the Calvinists. In 1623 Frederick v. lost all his dominions after his defeat at the White Hill, Prague, and they were given with the electoral dignity to Maximilian of Bavaria. In 1648 the Rhenish or Lower Palatinate was restored to Frederick's son, but Bavaria retained the Upper Palatinate. In the end of that century the Lower Palatinate was cruelly devastated, and Heidelberg burnt by the French. The Bavarian elector in 1815 received most of the Lower Palatinate, the remainder going to Prussia, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Baden.

Palatine, originally a court or state official, who was in immediate attendance on the king; and these counts of the palace, as they were called, held lands as the reward of their services. Their lands were known as 'palatinates,' or 'counties palatine.' The most notable was the Rhine Palatinate (see above). There were three counties palatine in England-Chester, Dur

Palatine

ham, and Lancaster. The two former were so by prescription or immemorial custom; the latter was created by Edward III. in favor of Henry Plantagenet, first earl, and then Duke of Lancaster. Counties palatine are so called because the Owners of them (the Earl of Chester, the bishop of Durham, and the Duke of Lancaster) had in them jura regalia as fully as the king had in his palace. They might pardon treason, murders, and felonies; they appointed all judges and justices of the peace; writs and indictments ran in their names, and offences were said to be done against their peace, instead of against the peace of the king. The earldom of Chester was united to the crown by Henry III., the palatine jurisdiction of the bishop of Durham was vested in the crown by 6 & 7 Will. iv. c. 19, and the county palatine of Lancaster was vested in the crown, along with the Duchy of Lancaster, by an act of Henry IV. The Court of Session of the county of Chester was abolished by 11 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV. c. 70. The common law jurisdiction of the courts of Durham and Lancaster was transferred to the High Court by the Judicature Act, 1873; but the Chancery Courts of both still remain, and have been strengthened by recent

acts.

Palatine, the earliest inhabited of the seven hills on which ancient Rome stood, its foundation being attributed to Romulus. The traces of its walls can still be seen. The Palatine lies s. of the Forum, E. of the Tiber, and N.E. of the Aventine Hill. From the fact that the emperors resided on the Palatine, the word palatium (palace') has come to signify a royal residence in most modern European languages.

Palatka, city, Fla., co. seat of Putnam co., 26 m. s.w. of St. Augustine, on the St. Johns R., and on the Atl. Coast L., the Fla. E. Coast, and the Ga. S. and Fla. R. Rs. The car shops of the Fla. S. R. R. are located here. Some of the industries are represented by the manufacture of iron and machinery, saw and shingle mill products, tanks, doors and sashes, moss factory products, brass, etc. Sugar, oranges, cotton, early vegetables, and small fruit are extensively cultivated and shipped from this point. The city is a popular winter resort. Pop. (1905) 3,950.

Palawan, prov., Philippines, and the most s.w. of the larger islands of the archipelago, lying between the China and the Sulu seas, averaging 17 m. in width, and extending 278 m. from N.E. to s.w. Area, mainland, 4,368 The province includes the sq. m.

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Calamianes, the Cuyos, Dumaran, and the Balabac group. Palawan is related geographically and biologically to Borneo. A longitu

dinal sierra divides the island into two watersheds. Its altitude ranges from 2,500 to 3,000 ft. The highest point, Mantalingahan, 6,843 ft., is near the s. end. The island is well watered and densely wooded to the mountain summits. Cabinet, medicinal, and building woods are abundant, and there are extensive deposits of vegetable gum. Horse and foot trails afford the only means of interior communication and transportation. Malampaya Sound, on the N.W. coast, is a completely landlocked body of water, capable of accommodating the navies of the world. In 1905 the limits of the province were extended, and the name, which had been Paragua

for a time, was changed back to Palawan. For geology, flora, and fauna, ethnology, etc., see PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Pop. (1903) civilized, 28,852; wild, 6,844.

Palazzolo Acreide, tn., Syracuse prov., Sicily, Italy, 22 m. w. of Syracuse, on site of ancient Acræ, has ruins of a fine Greek theatre. Pop. (1901) 15,106.

Pale, THE. See IRELANDHistory.

Paleario, AONIO or ANTONIO, also called ANTONIO DEI PAGLIARICI (c. 1500-70), Italian author and reformer, spent some years at Siena; wrote his poem De Immortalitate Animarum at Padua (1536); taught at Lucca (154655), and afterward at Milan. He wrote Della Pienezza, Sufficienza e Satisfazione della Passione di Cristo (1542); his evangelical views led to his imprisonment and death at the stake. work Benefizia di Cristo (1543) has been erroneously attributed to him. See Young's Life and Times of A. Paleario (1860).

The

Palembang, seapt., cap. of Dutch residency of Palembang, Sumatra, on riv. Palembang, 60 m. from the sea, is a health-recruiting station for the troops of the Dutch E. Indies. There are a fine mosque (1740) and the ancient palace and tombs of the former native dynasty. Cotton, sago, pepper, honey, rattans, dye-woods, and guttapercha are exported. Pop. (1895) 53,788.

Palencia. (1.) Province, central Spain, extends from Biscay Mts. on the N. to valley of Douro; is well watered by rivers Pisuerga, Carrion, and Canal of Castile, and produces grain, wine, honey, and fibres. Its woollen textiles are famous throughout Spain. It has an area of 3,256 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 192,473. (2.) City, cap. of prov. of same name, Spain, 27 m. N. by E. of Valladolid; an ancient walled city, with fine Gothic cathedral; busy

Palestine

centre of cloth, blanket, and flannel weaving. Pop. (1900) 15,940.

Palenque, vil., state of Chiapas, Mex., 70 m. S.E. by E. of San Jaun Bautista. About 7 m. s.w. of it are the superb ancient ruins of the former city which bore the same name. It has been possible, up to the present time, to discover only six of the ancient buildings, owing to the dense tropical vegetation of the district, but the probability is that many more still exist. The largest building is the palace, 220 ft. in length by 180 ft. in breadth. There are, besides, the temples of the Inscriptions, of the Sun, of the Cerro, of the Beau Relief, and of the Cross. All have wonderful decorative work in basrelief sculpture and colored stucco modelling. In some cases the exteriors present unique architectural designs. The numerous hieroglyphics have not yet been satisfactorily deciphered. The vaulted underground passage which encloses the Otolum R. and a stone bridge spanning the same stream are notable engineering achievements.

Palermo. (1.) Province of W. Sicily, Italy, is mountainous. Wine, figs, and olives are the principal products, while sulphur, marble, and agate are found. Area, 1,948 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 785,357. (2.) Town, cap. of above, on Gulf of Palermo, 144 m. by rail w. of Messina. The cathedral, a magnificent Gothic structure, was commenced in 1180, and contains tombs of Roger the Norman and Emperor Frederick II. The university (about 1,200 students) was founded at the close of the 14th century. The royal palace contains a famous observatory. The Palazzo Sclafani now serves as barracks. The chief products are essences, olive oil, wines, and sulphur. Palermo, the ancient Panormus, was founded by the Phoenicians, and was occupied by the Romans, 254 B.C., who made it one of their principal naval stations. Having fallen into the hands of the Goths in 493, it was wrested from them by Belisarius in 535. The massacre of the French, known as the Sicilian Vespers, which originated at Palermo (1282), was the beginning of the revolt against French oppression. After the death of De Ruyter, the Dutch and Spanish fleets were defeated off Palermo on June 2, 1676, by the French. In 1860 the town was liberated by Garibaldi, when it was annexed to Sardinia. Pop. (1901) 305,716.

Palestine is a strip of fertile land, 160 m. long and from 70 m. to 90 m. broad, between the Levant and the Arabian desert. It was included in the district called Syria by the Greeks and Esh-Sham by the Arabs. In Greek and Roman times the

Palestine

tions followed-Persians under Cambyses, Greeks under Alexander, the Seleucids, and the Ptolemies, the Romans under Pompey, the Parthians, the Romans again and again, then in 634 A.D. the Arabs, in the 11th century the Turks and the crusaders, in the 13th and 14th the Mongols, and in the 19th Napoleon.

In ancient times the high-roads from the Nile to the Euphrates, from the Levant to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, ran through Palestine; over them came most of the trade between India and Europe, and this lasted far into the middle ages.

In the N. of Arabia the limestone rocks are elevated into two great folds, the valley between which has been rent and deepened by a prolonged crack or 'fault.' The folds are now the parallel ranges of hills which run almost the whole way from Mt. Taurus to Sinai, and find their summits in Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon respectively; the gaping valley between them is that which holds the courses of the Orontes, the Jordan and its lakes, the Dead Sea, and the Gulf of Akabah. Thus, between sea and desert, Palestine is laid down from N. to s. in four long lines-the Maritime Plain, the Western Range (also called the Central Range), the Jordan Valley, and the Eastern Range. But there are breaks across the mountain ranges. The chief break is the plain of Esdraelon, which interrupts the Western Range, and provides an open way from the Maritime Plain to the Jordan Valley. At its southern end the Western Range declines into a broad, diversified plateau named the Negeb, or Parched Land. Mount Carmel lies right across the Maritime Plain, but so as to leave easy passages from the latter to Esdraelon. There is found in Palestine all kinds of climate, of soil, and of products, from the sub-tropical heat and verdure of the Jordan Valley to the subalpine airs and fruit-trees of the slopes of Hermon, palms by Jericho and pines on Lebanon, constant summer on the coast, summer and winter alternating on the main ranges, snow never seen at Gaza, but lying for days two or three feet deep on Gilead. Generally the summer is hot, and the winter or rainy season (September-May) is cold. Mean ann. temp. at Jerusalem, 62° F. There is rich valley land feeding husbandmen, and not far from it steep mountain-sides, or the barren desert, giving life to none but shepherds. There are the great plains fit for cavalry and chariots, and the mountain ranges that train only infantry and guerrilla warriors.

Palestine

This brokenness of the land, and especially the mixture of hill and plain, have had obvious effects on the history of Palestine. She has always been the land of petty populations. The Western Range both s. and N. of Esdraelon, and on the Eastern Range the hilly, broken Gilead -these comprised Israel's proper territory. From the Maritime Plain she was kept by the Philistines and Phoenicians; her hold on Esdraelon was precarious; the chariots of Aram drove her from the level Hauran; she never occupied for long the plateau of Moab. There was only one Jewish prince who united Palestine under his sway, Alexander Jannæus, and he only for a year or two. The plains and the valleys -these were the portions of the country open to the traffic and the war of foreign empires. Israel on the hills was planted aloof from all these. Yet as soon as Christ broke the national limits of the religion, it flowed down upon the plains and to the coast. The great place-names of the Acts of the Apostles are Gaza, Lydda, Joppa, Cæsarea, Ptolemais.

The Coast.-North of Carmel the mountains come down to the sea, and among their feet there are natural harbors large enough for the ships of the ancients (see PHOENICIA); South of Carmel the shore is level, an unbroken line of sand and cliff, up to the very mouths of the Nile. There is neither harbor nor room for a harbor; but Gaza had a roadstead and landingplace through which, for the centuries immediately before and after Christ, the Arabian or Nabataan commerce was conveyed to Rome. Ascalon had an artificial dock, used perhaps in Herod's time, and certainly in that of the crusaders. At Joppa there has always been trade from at least the time of Solomon to the present day. Joppa was the first and only harbor the Jews ever owned, taken by Simon Maccabæus (1 Macc. 14:5) in 144 B.C., and confirmed by Cæsar in 47. Note the Jewishness of Joppa in connection with Peter's visit and vision there (Acts 10). At Cæsarea, Herod built the first real port on this coast, the Great Haven. North of Cæsarea there are Tanturah, with the faint remembrance of a double harbor; and Athlit, the last stronghold of Jewish independence, and the last fortress of the crusaders.

The Maritime Plain.-From Carmel to the s. of Joppa extends the plain of Sharon, once covered in the N. by a considerable forest, but more cultivated in the s.; with few cities till just off the mouth of Ajalon, called the valley of the smiths (cf. Neh. 11:

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35 with 1 Sam. 13:19); there lay Herod's Antipatris, Lydda, Ono and the Arabic Ramleh, with Joppa as their harbor. From the low hills that bound Sharon to the Egyptian desert extended the country of the Philistines (see that article).

The Shephelah.-This low and open range of hills rising from the Maritime Plain is separated by a long line of valleys from the Central Range. It extends from the latitude of Gaza to that of Joppa-i.e. only opposite Judæa.

It is the great debatable ground of Palestine, and is traversed by five valleys, each of them with a sea-coast town at one end, and continued at the other by a defile or defiles leading up into the hill country of Judæa. They are the vale of Ajalon, with the high-roads from the coast to Jerusalem; the vale of Sorek, up which the railway now passes to Jerusalem, past Ekron and Zorah, and Eshtaol, or Samson's country; the vale of Elah (with its continuation to Bethlehem), where David slew Goliath, and with Adullam near; the Wady el-Afranj with Beit-Jibrin, the capital of the Shephelah; and the Wady el-Hesy-with Tell elHesy, the probable site of Lachish -the ancient gateway from Judah towards Gaza and Egypt.

Judah, or Judæa.-Judæa, the southern and most compact part of the Central Range, lay high, aloof, on the w. approachable only by narrow defiles, with a desert to the E. and S., and with an open access only in the N. The plateau is little more than 35 m. fong, by from 14 to 17 m. broad. It consists mostly of stony, waterless moorland, with some fertile breaks. Hebron, Bethlehem, Jerusalem, Bethel, all lie on a road that runs up the centre of the plateau. Jerusalem has become famous not by, but in spite of, her position.

Ephraim, or Samaria.-The later province of Samaria is more open, diversified, and fertile than Judæa. It forms the natural centre of the land, whose proper capital is Shechem (now Nablus), in the main pass between Ebal and Gerizim. There has always been a close connection with Gilead by the many fords across Jordan. Samaria was noted for the number of its fortresses on the low round hills, so characteristic of the country. The chief was Samaria, in a vale that led down into Sharon. Others were Gophna towards Bethel, and the city of Ephraim; on the E., Herod's Archelais and Phasaelis, in the Jordan valley; Bezek, Tirzah, and Thebez at the upper ends of the wadies leading to the latter; and in the N., Geba, Dothan, Bethulia, En-gannim (hardly a

Palestine

fortress, but an important frontier town between Samaria and Galilee), Jezreel, and, towards Jordan, Beth-shean.

Esdraelon. This great triangle of plain, lying between the hills of Samaria and those of Galilee, was the classic battlefield of the history of the Bible. The natural entrances to it are the three corners of the triangle-the pass of the Kishon at Tell el-Kasis, the glen between Tabor and Nazareth, and the valley south of En-gannim or Jenin, with the entrance from Jordan Valley at Jezreel, and that from Sharon at Megiddo, the modern Lejjun. The plain is extremely fertile, but boggy and almost impassable

in winter.

Galilee.-Originally the Galilee of the Gentiles lay between Esdraelon (which it comprised on the s.) and the river Kasimiyeh or Leontes on the N., the Maritime Plain on the w., and the Lake of Galilee, including the eastern coast of this, on the E. Exclusive of that, it measured about 50 m. N. and s. by from 20 to 25 m. E. and w. It fell into three belts running E. and W.-Esdraelon; Lower Galilee, a series of parallel ranges, none over 1,850 ft., crossing from the plateau along Tiberias to Haifa and Acre; and Upper Galilee, a series of plateaus surrounded by hills from 2,000 to 4,000 ft. It is to Lebanon that Galilee owes her much water and fertility. The country is well wooded, with stretches of good corn-land. There are many volcanic elements in the geology, and earthquakes are frequent. The great thoroughfare is the socalled Way of the Sea, connecting Damascus with the Levant. It seems to have skirted the north coast of the lake and passed through Capernaum, crossing Jordan by the present Bridge of the Daughters of Jacob. Nazareth lay in a basin on the hills, just above Esdraelon. For the lake, see GALILEE.

There were at least nine considerable towns round the lake. On the w. lay Tiberias, the new capital of Herod Antipas, with Magdala on Gennesaret, and Taricheæ probably to the s. On the west shore, after it trends E. to the mouth of the Jordan, are the sites of Capernaum, Chorazin, a little inland, and Bethsaida on the E. of Jordan. There was only one Bethsaida, called 'of Galilee,' though it lay E. of Jordan, for the name of the province extended right round the lake. Down the eastern shore lay Gergesa on the lake, and farther s. on the hills above lay Aphek (now Fik), and Hippos, belonging to Decapolis. Gadara lay about an hour and a half from the southeast corner of the lake,