Papacy

Martin v. on the papal throne. Pius II. issued the bull Execrabilis, declaring the pope absolute and supreme, but the schism and the discussion it provoked had helped to prepare the minds of the people for the coming revolt. Nicholas v. was a humanist, and founded the Vatican library. His immediate successors became patrons of artists and men of letters; but abuses flourished, nepotism was the common practice, and the papal court was that of an Italian prince. Nor did the popes in the early days of the sixteenth century improve matters. Julius II. was a politician, and involved the papacy in wars; Leo x. was deeply attached to the Renaissance; Adrian vi. had little capacity; Clement VII. was a clever time-server. The popes needed money, and therefore encouraged and extended the sale of indulgences and simony in all its forms. The protest of the Reformation was at first only against these abuses of administration and false interpretations of doctrine; but the Protestants early sought to break with the papacy.

The break of England and all northern Germany from Rome caused a counter-reformation in the Catholic Church, with Pope Paul III. (1534-49) at its head. He recognized the spiritual needs of the time, and encouraged the reformation of the monastic bodies, and the foundation of new orders such as the Capuchins, the Theatines, and the Jesuits, who did much in the work of revival. By the Tridentine Decrees, ratified on Jan. 26, 1564, by Pius IV., the Church of Rome acquired a clearly and sharply defined body of doctrine,' and at the same time the discipline of the Church was fully reformed. In general, the papal authority was maintained and its formal claims confirmed. But in the time of Clement VII. (1592-1605) the papacy began to realize that there were limits to its powers of attraction. The Catholic revival in France, which marked the reign of Louis XIII. and to some extent that of Louis XIV., coincided with the great attempt made by the Emperor Ferdinand II., during the Thirty Years' War, to regain all Germany to Roman Catholicism. Urban VIII. (1623-44) was unable, owing to the attitude of Richelieu, to effect a complete Catholic restoration in France, and the peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the attempt to impose Catholicism throughout Western and Central Europe. In 1682 Louis XIV. asserted the liberties of the Gallican Church, and threatened, like Henry VIII., to cut off all connection with the papacy. The danger, however, passed away, and at the end of his reign Louis supported the Jesuits and the papal power.

The eighteenth century was a
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time of trial for the papacy, owing to the spread of scientific ideas all over Europe. The movement known as the 'Enlightenment' (German Aufklärung), represented in France by Voltaire and the Encyclopædists, was at its height, and its leaders were opposed to the claims of the papacy on the ground that they were not sanctioned by reason. The general attack on the Jesuits between 1758 and 1770 revealed at the same time a growing hostile attitude toward the papacy on the part of most European rulers. The Emperor Joseph II. hoped at one time to found a national church, and the whole course of the French Revolution was disastrous, at least for the time being, to the cause of Roman Catholicism. Napoleon 1. did indeed restore in a very modified sense the papal authority in France; but it was not till after 1815 that a reaction in favor of religion took place, and the Jesuits, who had been abolished by Clement XIV., were restored. During the pontificate of Pius IX. (1846-78) the papal position was further defined, and Ultramontane attitude was taken up. In 1854 the bull Ineffabilis Deus declared the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary to be a doctrine of the Church. In 1864 a papal Syllabus named as errors of the age, religious toleration, liberty of conscience, freedom of the press and of speech, the separation of church and state, and secular education. The hierarchy in England had already been re-established, and a Roman Catholic university in Ireland had been set on foot. In 1870 papal infallibility was proclaimed; but the same year Victor Emmanuel, by the occupation of Rome and the annexation of the Papal States to the kingdom of Italy, put an end to the temporal power of the popes, who since then have refused to recognize the Italian government, and have considered themselves 'captives' in the Vatican.

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Leo XIII. (1878-1903) restored the hierarchy in Scotland. He held firmly to his own rights, protested against heresy, and declared that in religion was to be found the only solution of socialistic problems. He was succeeded by the present Pope, Pius x. (b. 1835). Since his accession the Church in France has been declared independent of. the papacy, and in Spain the question of ecclesiastical independence of the Vatican has also been raised, largely as a political issue. Consult Pastor's History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages (Eng. trans., 1891); Creighton's History of the Papacy (new ed., 1897); Döllinger's Church and the Churches (Eng. trans., 1862); Ranke's Popes of Rome (Eng. trans., 1866); Mann's Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages (1902 et seq.);

Paper

Seebohm's Era of the Protestant Revolution (1902); Robinson's History of Western Europe (1902–3); Robinson's Readings in European History (1904-6); Robinson and Beard's Development of Modern Europe (1907-8), and Readings in Modern European History (1908-9).

Papain, an enzyme obtained from the juice of the unripe fruit of the Carica papaya, which is cultivated in tropical countries. The juice of this fruit resembles in digestive action the gastric and pancreatic secretions of the animal organism. Papain forms a white powder which converts starch into maltose, emulsifies fats, and converts albuminoids into peptones, either in acid or alkaline solution. Papain is frequently used for removing the false membrane from the throat of diphtheritic patients by frequent applications of its solution. See PAPAW.

Papal States. STATES OF THE.

See CHURCH,

Papantla, town, state of Vera Cruz, Mexico, 120 m. s.S.E. of Tampico. It is a shipping point for tobacco, cereals, red pepper, and coffee. The district contains ancient remains. Pop. about 10,000.

Papaver, a genus of hardy or half-hardy herbaceous plants belonging to the order Papaveraceæ. They are characterized by a sessile, rayed stigma, and by the fact that the capsule opens by pores beneath the stigma. Much the most important member of the genus is P. somniferum, the opium poppy, the drug being obtained from the milky juice that escapes from incisions in the capsule. See

POPPY.

Papaw, PAPAYA, MELON TREE, an herbaceous tree (Papayaceæ) cultivated in most tropical countries for its fruit. This is oblong, about ten inches in length, with a thick rind like that of a melon, but orange in color. The fruit is boiled when unripe and eaten as a vegetable, or gathered in the ripe state and made into sauce. The green fruit yields a milk possessing an astringent, bitterish taste from which a digestive enzyme called papain is obtained. In America, the small tree, Asimina triloba (Anonacea), with purple flowers and sweet, edible, oblong fruit, is known by this name. See PAPAIN.

Paper. HISTORICAL. The art of making paper appears to have been known to the Chinese and Japanese from very early times. About the twelfth century the industry was introduced by the Moors into Spain, whence it spread to Italy, and later to France and Germany. It was not well established in England till 1685, and the first paper-mill in America was erected near Philadelphia in 1690. Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century every sheet had to

PULP-MAKING MACHINERY FOR PAPER MANUFACTURE.

Beating machines on the left; Jordan engines on the right.

Paper

be laboriously made by hand, and the credit of introducing a successful paper-making machine belongs to Henry Fourdrinier (1766-1854), who has given his name to one type of machine. The first cylinder type was put in practical operation by John Dickinson, in England, in 1809.

MATERIALS. Paper is made from various plant fibres: in the early days of the industry, almost invariably from one of the discarded textile fabrics, technically called 'rags,' and including worn-out_garments, cuttings, and waste from looms. Later it became necessary to find additional sources of supply, of which the straw of cereals, the fibre obtained by disintegrating wood, and the esparto or alfa grasses of Spain and North Africa, are the chief. England uses very largely the esparto fibre, which is not used at all in the United States, where wood fibres form fully 75% of the raw material (see WOOD PULP). The highest grades of paper-amounting to possibly 5%

are still made from linen and cotton, and possess greater durability than those obtained directly from fibre-yielding plants.

Plant fibre, when pure, is a white, semi-opaque substance, insoluble in all ordinary solvents, and chemically known as cellulose (q. v.). This, from whatever source it is obtained, possesses the same chemical composition, but has physical and microscopic characteristics peculiar to the plant from which it is derived. In all cases the cellulose requires to be freed from other substances which have been incorporated with it during the growth of the plant. Fibres that are short and possess smooth exteriors yield a paper that is brittle and easily torn; while fibres that are long and flexible, and have rough or irregular exteriors, yield a paper that is tough and strong. These represent the extremes. Several fibres, though extremely useful when mixed with longer and stronger fibres, are incapable of making a strong or flexible paper when used alone. Such a fibre is obtained from straw, while examples of long, barbed fibres are obtained from hemp and flax.

MANUFACTURE.-In paper making, the first process to which rags are subjected is sorting, or separation into different grades. In this, great care must be exercised, the subsequent processes depending on the efficiency with which the work is done. Linens are separated from cottons, and each may be subdivided into various grades. After the rags have been sorted, cut, and dry-cleaned, they are conveyed to a boiler, where they are treated with an alkali and boiled by means of steam in a closed vessel under pressure, or in an open tub with a 'vomit' for a period varying with VOL. IX.-Jan. '11.

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the quality of the rags and the strength of the alkali. The object of boiling with alkali is to destroy coloring matters, and to decompose and render soluble albuminous and fatty matters. When the boiling is completed, the liquor is drained off, and the boiled rags are washed with water, in order to remove as much of the soda as possible.

The rags are next conveyed to the washing and breaking engine, an oval-shaped tub, divided in the centre by a division known as the 'mid-feather,' but leaving a free passage for the rags at each end. On one side of the mid-feather is a heavy roll, fitted with a number of blades on fly-bars, and this roll revolves on a shaft running at a high speed. On the bed of the breaker, under the centre of the roll, is fitted the bed-plate, having a number of stationary blades. A grating called a 'button catcher' is fixed in front of the bed-plate, and acts as a trap for heavy substances, such as nails and buttons. In addition, a revolving drum covered with fine wire cloth, having a number of scoops fitted inside, is placed on the section of the 'washer' opposite to the roll, but nearer one end. This drum, or washing cylinder, can be lowered so that the under part of its circumference is immersed in the rags and water in the 'washer,' from which the dirty water flows through the meshes of the wire cloth into the scoops, which remove it to the drain; while clean water to supply its place is run into the 'washer' at the end in front of the roll. When the rags have been sufficiently washed, the clean water supply is shut off, the drum-washer raised, and the roll lowered so that the rags may be brought into contact with the bars of the roll and of the bed-plate. The effect of this is that the rags are torn in shreds, until they are finally reduced to a pulpy condition. Chlorine liquor is then added, and the rags in the form of 'half stuff' are run off to a drainer.

The other sources of paper, such as esparto, straw, or wood, require similar treatment. Esparto grass, after being dusted, is boiled under pressure in a stationary 'vomiting' boiler; and in this the soda solution, which is much stronger than in the case of rags, is circulated by the injection of steam. The liquor is then run off, the grass thoroughly washed, and then broken in a 'washer,' as with rags. Straw is treated similarly, but requires higher pressure, longer boiling, and more caustic soda; the latter is invariably recovered by evaporation of the waste liquors and purified. Wood pulp is of two kinds(1) that obtained by grinding the wood, and (2) that resulting from chemical disintegration. Mechanical wood pulp is used only for very

Paper

inferior papers, as the fibres are short and the paper soon discolors; the chemical process yields a better product. In it sliced wood is treated with a solution of either caustic soda or calcium bisulphite at high temperature and under considerable pressure, with the result that the non-cellulose of the wood is dissolved, leaving the cellulose in a suitable state to break up into pulp. That obtained by the bisulphite process is whiter, and yields better paper than mechanical wood pulp.

All pulps, except those of the purest rag cuttings, require a certain amount of bleaching if white papers are required. This operation is carried out most commonly in America by adding a quantity of calcium hypochlorite or bleaching powder to the washer, and running the pulp to drainers, where it whitens. When sufficiently dry it is dug, and brought back to the beating engines. In some mills a system of continuous bleaching is in vogue. This requires the use of an antichlor' to kill any excess of bleach, which would otherwise cause the fibre to go back in color. The presence of bleach would also affect pigments used in tinting the paper.

The pulp is then run off on a wet machine. It is then ready for the next stage, which consists in again breaking or beating up the 'halfstuff,' as it is now termed, with a quantity of water, which should be as pure as possible, and free from all suspended matter. The beating is carried out in an engine very similar to the breaker already described, but without the drumwasher, and having a roll that is capable of finer adjustment. The texture, strength, and regularity of the paper depend very largely upon the skillful treatment which the pulp receives at this stage.

The coloring matters are added during this process of beating, as well as any filling or loading substances. The latter consist of certain finely divided and inert mineral bodies, such as pure China clay or calcium sulphate, and they are used to fill up the interspaces between the fibres, and to assist in imparting a more solid surface to the paper, especially in the case of fine printing papers for half-tone photo-mechanical blocks. It is very rare that loading materials are added for purposes of adulteration, as is commonly supposed.

The demand of printers for a paper having a very close surface has led to the coating of paper with an emulsion containing a large proportion of such mineral matters as are used as fillers. It is then dried and calendered. The surface thus obtained is the highest known, though the process somewhat detracts from its durability.

The sizing materials necessary

Paper

for the production of an enginesized paper are also added to the pulp during the process of beating. These consist of a solution of resin soap, and after a lapse of time a solution of aluminium sulphate. The object of sizing is to render the fibres more or less impervious to water, and thus enable the paper to be used for writing on without the risk of the ink 'spreading.'

The beating operation is modified nowadays by the use of the refining engine, or Jordan. This, as the name implies, gives the finishing touch to the 'stuff' on its way to the stuff chest, where it is kept of uniform consistency by a revolving agitator.

The subsequent progress of the pulp depends on whether it is to be hand- or machine-made. In the former case, the workman dips a wire-cloth sheet surrounded by a wooden rim or 'deckle' into a vat of thin pulp. By shaking, the pulp is distributed evenly and felted, the water is drained off, and the sheet of paper removed. It is then pressed between felt, sized, and dried.

Machine-made Paper.-Most paper, however, is machine-made, and for this method the pulp is pumped from the stuff-chest to a servicebox, from which it flows in a regulated stream mixed with a definite quantity of water, depending upon the thickness and weight of the paper. The pulp then passes over sand tables, through strainers, or screens, having very fine cuts in the plates, so as to catch all large particles or knots of fibre.

The principle of the hand-made sheet is carried out on the machine, except that the process is continuous. The machine consists of an endless wire cloth which travels from the brest roll to the couch rolls, over a table consisting of small rolls. The liquid pulp is kept from flowing over the edges of the wire by rubber straps (deckles). The wire, in addition to the forward motion, has a lateral 'shake' for the purpose of inducing the fibres to 'felt'-i.e., knit together. As the wire moves forward, much of the water in the pulp leaches through its meshes, and is caught by a 'save-all' box, to be returned again to help dilute the fresh pulp. Before the fibres reach the end of the deckles they pass over a suction box, which removes more water, and leaves the web dry enough to maintain its position on the wire as it passes under the 'dandy roll.' This roll revolves with the same surface speed as the wire, and imparts the 'laid' appearance and water-mark to the paper. It consists of a skeleton roll, covered with wire gauze, and having woven upon it in wire, standing out in relief, the device which it is desired to impress on the sheet; more commonly, however, it has a plain surface. VOL. IX,-Jan. '11.

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Both pulp and wire cloth then pass between the couch rolls, the top couch being covered with felt, while the wire returns round the lower couch to the brest roll.

The pulp has now become a very tender, moist fabric, and is lifted by hand upon a woollen apron (felt), which carries it through a press, when it is again helped by hand to a second press. The second press travels in the opposite direction to the first, so that the web is carried by, turned over, and carried back through press rolls. Thus, in going through the first press the lower or wire side is next the felt; in returning, the upper side is next the felt. At this stage, possibly half the weight of the web is still water, which is now evaporated out by passing over drying cylinders filled with steam. The web next passes to a stack of chilled rolls (calenders), which impart a certain amount of surface, and thence to the reel. It is unwound from the reel, passing between slitters, which cut it into the desired widths. Finally, it is cut into sheets, and wound into shipping rolls, or is taken to the super-calenders for additional surfacing.

STATISTICS. -In 1909 exports from the United States amounted to $8,000,000; imports, chiefly from Germany, $12,000,000. Within the last twenty years the output of paper mills, both in the United States and Europe, has increased enormously. The total annual production in the world is 8,000,000 tons, of which the United States produces 40% and Europe 55%. An increase of 25% has been estimated for the next ten years.

The increase in the United States is chiefly due to the fact that raw materials in the form of wood are cheap and plentiful; while, in addition, the rivers, with their vast water power, enable the American manufacturer to produce wood pulp and mechanical wood pulp at a low figure. At the same time, spruce and other woods valuable in paper manufacture are being used so much faster than the supply can be renewed by growth that manufacturers are fearing a shortage within a few years, if American resources are not supplemented by those of other countries, or material other than wood pulp utilized. The question of Canadian reciprocity is therefore of great importance to the paper trade. American mills are most numerous in the Eastern States. New York leads in the value of its paper products, followed by Massachusetts, Maine, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, New Hampshire, and Connecticut; many other States also have paper mills.

Consult Spicer's Paper Trade (1907); Beadle's Chapters on Paper-making (1907-8); Clapperton's

Paper Money

Practical Papermaking (1908); Watt's Art of Papermaking (3d ed., 1908); Stevens' Paper Mill Chemist (1908); Schaefer's Die Wirtschaftliche Bedeutung der Technischen Entwicklung in der Papierfabrikation (1909); Spark's Kurzes Lehrbuch der Chemie für Papiertechniker (1910).

Paper Money. The advantages and disadvantages of paper as distinct from metallic money (see MONEY) have been stated forcibly by Adam Smith in his Wealth of Nations (book II., chap. ii.). The chief advantages of paper money (sometimes called representative money) are its increased convenience and its greater economy. Costing comparatively nothing to produce, it is more portable than metal, though it is less durable. On the other hand, the special dangers to which it is liable can be avoided, as experience has shown, only by some sacrifice of the economy resulting from its use. It may be either convertible or inconvertible. In the former case the authority issuing the paper undertakes to give coin in exchange when it is asked; in the latter, no such guarantee is provided. ually, it is given a legal-tender quality, in the hope of supporting its value. But even though its quantity is not increased, it is found that its value will fluctuate according to the chances of its redeemability in coin. The quantity outstanding is of moment only as it touches the question of redemption. It will not be accepted elsewhere at any other value than that of such metal as can be obtained in exchange.

Us

The temptation to inconvertibility is hard to withstand. The pressing needs of the government itself, which have prompted recourse to inconvertible paper as a means of raising revenue, may urge it further on this slippery road; and the high prices resulting from a depreciated standard are likely to be popular with those of the community who discover that they can pay their debts with greater ease, or who honestly believe that the resultant appearance of prosperity rests on a real foundation. History can adduce abundant examples of excessive issues, and no less convincing evidence of demoralizing and calamitous consequences. The assignats and mandats of the French Revolution, the Bank of England Restriction (1797-1821), the 'greenbacks' of the American Civil War, the inconvertible paper of Italy, Austria, and Russia in more recent times, are examples of inconvertibility. To set against these there are few illustrations of a discretionary power wisely and resolutely used. The conduct of the Bank of France during the Franco-German War of 1870 is the best one. France