Peewit

of Wisconsin (1888); Prehistoric America (1890-9); Ancient Monuments and Ruined Cities (1904); Aboriginal Religions in America (1905).

Peewit. See LAPWING.

Peffer, WILLIAM ALFRED (1831), American lawyer and legislator, was born in Cumberland, Pa. During the Civil War, he enlisted (1862) as a private in the Eightythird Illinois Regiment and was mustered out in 1865 with the rank of lieutenant. In that year he began the practice of law at Clarksville, Tenn. He afterward removed to Kansas; established the Fredonia Journal and the Coffeyville Journal; and was elected to the State senate in 1874. He became editor of the Kansas Farmer in 1881; was elected United States Senator by the Populists in 1891; and in 1898 was the Prohibitionist candidate for governor. His published works include: Myriorama (1869); Carpet Bagger in Tennessee (1869); The Way Out, the Farmer's Side (1891); Americanism in the Philippines (1900); Rise and Fall of Populism (1900).

Pegasus, in ancient Greek legend, was a horse with wings which sprang from the blood of the Gorgon Medusa when Perseus cut off her head. Bellerophon caught him while drinking at the fountain of Pirene, on the Acrocorinthus. Mounted on Pegasus, Bellerophon killed the Chimæra. Later Bellerophon tried to ascend to heaven, but fell to earth; while Pegasus continued his ascent, and was placed among the stars.

Pegasus, an ancient Greek constellation lying between Andromeda and the head of Aquarius.

282

Pegmatite, a term used for extremely coarse-grained granites, especially those occurring in veins. It is also used for that type of granite in which quartz and orthoclase are intergrown; also called graphic granite. Pegmatites contain other minerals, as muscovite, garnet, oxides of iron, apatite, zircon, beryl, and topaz, and are often rich in rare minerals.

Pegram, JOHN (1832-65), American soldier, born in Petersburg, Va. He graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1854; entered the army as second lieutenant of dragoons; served during most of the next seven years on the frontier, and was commissioned first lieutenant of dragoons in 1857. He resigned from the army at the outbreak of the Civil War, and entered the Confederate service as lieutenant-colonel. He was captured at Rich Mountain, but was soon after exchanged; served as chief of engineers under Gen. Bragg in Mississippi, and then as chief of staff under Gen. Kirby Smith in Tennessee. In November, 1862, he was commissioned brigadier-general of cavalry, and fought at Murfreesboro and Chickamauga. He was afterward put in command of Gen. Early's old division, fought in the Wilderness, and in the disastrous Shenandoah campaign against Sheridan. He was mortally wounded in February, 1865, at the battle of Hatcher's Run.

Pegu, chief town, Pegu district, Lower Burma, stands on Pegu River, 44 m. N.E. of Rangoon, and is one of the ports of Lower Burma. Founded in 573 A.D., in the sixteenth century it was noted for its size and strength. A large pagoda testifies to its former grandeur. Pegu was captured by the British in 1852. Pop. 15,000.

Pegu River rises in Pegu Yoma Mountains, flows s.s.E. and s.w. through Hanthawadi district, and joins the Rangoon or Hlaing River; navigable by large vessels to Puzondaung. Length, 180 m.

Pehlevi, or PAHLAVI, a language of the Parsees, or Parsis, which, flourishing between the third and the ninth century, came between Zend (q. v.) and modern Persian, and bears considerable resemblance to the latter. The origin of the language is unknown, but it contains a number of Semitic words. The study of the Pehlevi language and literature was stimulated by the discovery in 1871 of 52 Pehlevi writings in the library of a high priest in Bombay. Investigations were made, and a number of other texts have since been found; but it is possible that many more are hidden in native libraries. The literature that has so far been brought to light consists of texts on religious subjects, texts on miscellaneous subjects, and Pehlevi translations of Avesta texts.

Peirce

Pel-ho River, in province of Chili, China, navigable by steamer to Tientsin, and by boat to Tungchau, 12 m. from Peking. Canals opened by Li Hung Chang, the Chinese statesman, to carry off floods greatly injured the river, but works carried on since 1900 have much improved its condition. It flows into the Gulf of Chi-li, near Taku forts. The bar here has also extended considerably, and rendered the approach more difficult. Length, 285 m. In 1858, on May 20, the Taku forts were captured by an Anglo-French force. In the following year RearAdmiral James Hope attempted to force the passage, with disastrous results, losing three vessels. Aug. 21, 1860, the Taku forts were captured by a combined British and French naval and military movement. They were again attacked and captured on June 17, 1900, by a mixed force of Europeans and Japanese.

On

Peine forte et dure. A prisoner who refused to plead was anciently put in a low, dark chamber, stripped, and laid on the bare floor, and as great a weight of iron as he could bear, and more, was put on his body. On the first day he was given three morsels of the worst bread, on the second three draughts of standing water, and so on alternately till he died or answered. See Stephen's Commentaries.

Peipus, or CHUDSKOYE LAKE, N.W. Russia, is composed of three basins-Great Peipus, Little Peipus or Pskov Lake, and Lake Teploe. Length, 90 m.; breadth, 29 m.; area, 1,355 sq. m. Of this area, three-fourths belong to the Great Peipus. Fisheries, especially of sprats, are important.

Peirce, BENJAMIN (1809-80), American mathematician and astronomer, was born in Salem, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1829, where in 1833-42 he was professor of mathematics and natural philosophy, and in 1842-80 Perkins professor of astronomy and mathematics. In 1843 he delivered lectures in New England cities on the theory of comets, which stimulated public interest in astronomy and fed to the foundation and equipment of Harvard Observatory. From 1849 to 1867 he was consulting astronomer to the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, and in 1855 assisted in organizing the Dudley Observatory at Albany, N. Y. During 1852-67 he supervised the longitude determinations of the U. S. Coast Survey, and from 1867 to 1874 was superintendent of the survey. He was a prolific writer on mathematical and astronomical subjects. Analytic Mechanics (1855-7), in which he sought to consolidate the latest researches of the great geometers into a consistent treatise, was the first great mathematical work produced in the

Peirce

United States. Among his other publications are: Elementary Treatise on Plane and Spherical Trigonometry (1835-6); on Sound (1836); on Plane and Solid Geometry (1837); on Algebra (1837); on Curves, Functions and Forces (2 vols., 1841-6); Tables of the Moon (1853); Linear Associative Algebra (1870-81). He helped edit Cambridge Miscellany of Mathematics and Physics (1842).

Peirce, BENJAMIN OSGOOD (1854), American physicist, was born in Beverly, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1876, and then studied in the Universities of Berlin and Leipzig, where he received the degree of PH.D. in 1879. He was assistant professor of mathematics and physics in Harvard in 1884-8, when he became Hollis professor of mathematics and natural philosophy. He has published: Theory of the Newtonian Potential Function (1886); Table of Integrals (1899); Experiments in Magnetism; also numerous papers on mathematics and physics.

Peirce, BRADFORD KINNEY (1819-89), American clergyman, was born at Royalton, Vt.; graduated (1841) at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. He joined the New England Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1843; was editor of the SundaySchool Messenger and SundaySchool Teacher during 1844-5, and agent of the American SundaySchool Union from 1854 to 1856. He served in the Massachusetts legislature for two years, and was superintendent and chaplain of the State Industrial School for Girls at Lancaster, Mass., from 1856 to 1862. From 1863 to 1872 he was chaplain of the New York House of Refuge; from 1872 to 1888, editor of Zion's Herald at Boston. Among his works are: Bible Scholar's Manual (1847); Life of Charles Goodyear (1866); Half-Century with Juvenile Offenders (1869).

Peirce, CHARLES SANTIAGO SANDERS (1839), American philosopher and writer, son of Benjamin Peirce and brother of H. H. D. Peirce (q.v.), was born in Cambridge, Mass. He was graduated at Harvard (1859). He devoted himself to researches and writing in mathematics, the history of criticism, and psychology; but was especially interested in the science of logic. He was the first to formulate and name the philosophic principle of pragmatism, which was later brought into prominence by the writings of William James (q.v.). He lectured at Harvard University (1903) and at the Lowell Institute (1903-4). In addition to numerous articles on logic, psychology, metaphysics, and other subjects, he wrote Photometric Researches (1878), and edited Studies in Logic, by members of the Johns Hopkins University (1883); Linear Associative Algebra, by Benjamin Peirce (1882). He has also contributed largely to the Century VOL. IX.-Jan. '11.

283

Dictionary, the logic department of Baldwin's Dictionary of Psychology and Philosophy, and to other encyclopædias.

Peirce, HERBERT HENRY DAVIS (1849), American diplomat, was born in Cambridge, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1871. In 1894 he was appointed secretary of the U. S. legation at St. Petersburg, and in 1898 first secretary of the embassy. He has been many times chargé d'affaires at important posts, and was special counsel for United States claimants in the arbitration of 1902 between the United States and Russia. Since 1906 he has been Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Norway. He is a commander of the French Legion of Honor.

Peirce, JAMES MILLS (18341906), American mathematician, was born in Cambridge, Mass.; graduated at Harvard in 1853. He was a tutor in Harvard in 1854-8 and 1860-1; from 1861 to 1869 he was assistant professor of mathematics; professor in 1869-85. In 1885 he became Perkins professor of astronomy and mathematics; was dean of the graduate school in 1890-5; dean of the faculty of arts and sciences in 1895-8. He published: Text-Book of Analytic Geometry (1857); Elements of Logarithms (1873); Mathematical Tables (1879).

Peirce, MELUSINA FAY (1836), American writer and organizer of women's societies, wife of Charles S. S. Peirce (q.v.), was born in Burlington, Vt. She was educated at home, and at Professor Agassiz' school in Cambridge, Mass. She organized many societies of women for domestic, educational, and other purposes. Among them may be mentioned the Boston Woman's Education Association (1871), the Poe Cottage Preservation Commission (1895-6), and the Fraunce's Tavern Restoration Commission of New York. She was a reviewer on the Atlantic Monthly (1868–77); music critic on the Boston Post (1887-8), and on the Chicago Evening Journal (1881-4). She wrote Co-operative Housekeeping (1884), and edited Music Study in Germany (many editions,).

Peirce, WILLIAM FOSTER (1868), American educator, was born in Chicopee Falls, Mass. He graduated at Amherst College in 1888. He was professor of psychology and pedagogy at the Ohio University in 1891-2; professor of psychology and ethics at Kenyon College in 1892-6. In 1896 he was made president of Kenyon College.

Peixotto, ERNEST CLIFFORD (1869), American artist, was born in San Francisco. He studied at the Académie Julien, in Paris, under Benjamin-Constant and Jules Lefebvre. He has exhibited frequently in Paris, and in the leading American exhibitions, and received

Peking

honorable mention at the Salon for A Woman of Rijsoord. Since 1897 he has devoted himself to illustrating books, and to writing and illustrating articles for American magazines. He has lived abroad for many years. His writings include By Italian Seas (1906); Through French Provinces (1909).

Pekan, an early Canadian Indian name of the fisher marten, or Pennant's marten (Mustela Pennanti), a North American furbearing animal.

Pekin, city, Illinois, county seat of Tazewell co., 10 m. s.s.w. of Peoria, on the Illinois R., and the A., T. and S. Fé, Chi. and Alt., and five other RRs. It is an industrial centre, with manufactures of whiskey, beer, sugar, wagons, organs, cooperage, gasoline engines, boilers, foundry and machine-shop products, tents and awnings, brick, cement blocks, and planing-mill products. The district contains extensive deposits of bituminous coal. Pop. (1910) 9,897.

Pekin Duck, a large white duck, with yellow bill and feet, introduced into the United States from China. These ducks are extensively raised for market, being easily reared and of excellent flavor.

Peking (Northern Capital'), capital of China, consists of an inner and outer-that is, a Manchu and a Chinese-city. The former is 14 m. in circuit, and has three gates on the south and two on the northwest and east sides. The wall is about 45 ft. high and 47 ft. thick. Within the Manchu city lie the imperial palace and parks, the palaces of the nobles, the public offices and barracks, the examination hall, the Confucian and other large temples, and many private residences. Shops are mainly confined to the principal streets, which are of great width. In the Chinese city, which projects on the south of the Manchu city, and is enclosed by a wall 22 ft. high with seven gates, are shops, theatres, restaurants, clubhouses, the temples of heaven and agriculture; but large spaces are unoccupied, and other ground is under cultivation. Peking probab y owes its choice as a capital in large measure to its favorable position from a geomantic point of view. As the country round is too poor to support its population, supplies have to be imported from the south. This need led to the construction of the Grand Canal, and of a shorter canal across the promontory of Shan-tung. The summer palaces of Yuan-ming-yuan, Wan-shou-shan and I-ho-yuan lie from 5 to 6 m. north of the city; and in the plain surrounding the city are many picturesque graveyards belonging to noble families. The tombs of the last dynasty lie about 20 miles north of the city, and those of the present dynasty from two to three days' journey east and west of Peking. Near the city is the

Peking

Great Bell Temple, containing the largest bell in the world next to that in Moscow.

Peking has, with short intervals, been an imperial residence for more than nine hundred years, and was an important place long before that date. It has been known by many names-e.g., Chi in the twelfth century B.C., Yen early in the Christian era, Yu-chou in the seventh century A.D., Nan-ching in the tenth, Yen-ching in the eleventh, Khan-baligh in the thirteenth, and Pei-ching (Peking) in the fifteenth century. Its present official name is Shun-tien-fu. Peking surrendered to the Anglo-French force in 1860, and was taken by the allied forces sent for the relief of the foreign legations at the time of the Boxer uprising (1900). (See BoxERS.) The city, everywhere severely damaged by the siege, was left in ruins in the Legation Quarter. Among notable buildings destroyed was the Portuguese Cathedral, over 500 years old. The troops quartered in the Temple of Heaven made havoc in those sacred precincts, and the other soldiers of the allies plundered freely throughout the city. The observatory, established early in the nineteenth 'century, was looted and the thirteenth-century instruments of ornamented bronze were carried away.

The indemnities that China was forced to pay to the foreign governments whose representatives suffered at the hands of the Boxers were, except in the case of the United States, used for building new legations, with barracks. About seventeen hundred soldiers are still (1911) on garrison duty in Peking.

The closing year of the nineteenth century marked a turning-point in the history of China, especially of its capital city. The Lama Temple and the Temple of Heaven have been opened to visitors. The rebuilding of Peking was done in modern style, and largely according to Western ideas. Macadam roads, modern hospitals, electric lights, improved railroad and telegraph facilities, the introduction of the telephone, and the revolution in public order in the streets have in ten years transformed medieval Peking into a modern city. It is now the starting-point of three railroads, which are being rapidly extended. It has five foreign banks, of which architecturally the Hong-kong and Shanghai Bank is the most notable. A Marconi apparatus is installed within the grounds of the Italian Legation, and another outside of the Imperial Palace, to keep the Prince Regent in touch with the provincial divisions of the reorganized imperial army. The telephone was installed in 1909, after investigation of American methods. The Chinese Parliament VOL. IX.-Jan. '11.

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Building, which is to cost $1,300,000, is under construction. It is modelled on the Belgian Houses of Parliament. The old examination system of education has been completely overthrown, and public schools following Western methods, with Japanese, American, and European teachers, have been established. Pop. (est. 1910), 1,650,000. See CHINA.

Peking, University of. Before 1900 the Imperial University in Peking was reorganized by Dr. W. A. P. Martin along modern lines; but the Boxer uprising scattered the staff. A new corps of foreign professors, however, has since been called together, who are training the Chinese to educate their countrymen. A medical department was started in 1906. In its present stage of development, it has been said that the University takes the students about as far in most subjects as the Sophomore year of the better American institutions. Medical instruction has been and is inadequate, because Chinese medicine, which is still taught, is full of superstitions. But the Union Medical College, established in 1909, has already done much to raise the standard of medical education. Other excellent schools and colleges, founded by various mission boards, have great influence, and are forcing on the Imperial University an enlargement and improvement of its curriculum, especially in the departments of science, psychology, medicine, and the history of education.

Pelagic Animals, those which inhabit the open sea. They are contrasted, on the one hand, with those which live on the sea bottom in shallow water (littoral or shore animals); and, on the other, with those which live in great depths (abyssal animals). It is convenient to divide the pelagic fauna into two sections the first including those forms which are unable to swim against the ocean currents, and therefore drift passively with them; the second including powerful swimmers, such as the majority of fish, whales, and so forth. The former are styled 'plankton,' and the latter 'nekton.' The plankton includes not only animals of varying degrees of complexity, but also many plants of simple structure, and simple animals which in their method of nutrition behave like plants. The plants and these chlorophyll-containing animals form the basal food supply for all the pelagic forms; hence, generally speaking, their distribution determines the distribution of the pelagic fauna in general-e.g., the migratory movements of such fish as the herring. In studying the plankton of the ocean, fine silk nets are utilized, which may be used either at the surface or at any moderate depth thought desirable.

Pelagic animals belonging to the

Pelagius

plankton series are usually transparent and of delicate structure; they are frequently phosphorescent, and it is characteristic that they usually occur in enormous shoals. Most members of this fauna show an apparent great simplicity of structure, but detailed observation proves that this simplicity is adaptive, not primitive. Thus, among molluscs the shell tends to be lost, which necessarily gives greater lightness; but the embryos of such shell-less pelagic molluscs possess shells. Again, it is common to find contrivances for diminishing the specific gravity of the body. Thus, the pelagic Crustacea mostly possess bubbles of oil, which cause them to float easily. Pelagic Siphonophora, such as the Portuguese man-of-war, have floats, which both buoy them up and act as sails. The beautiful pelagic cephalopod known as the argonaut uses its expanded arms as a sail. Pelagic animals, like abyssal forms, are usually very uniform in coloring, and shades of blue and green, though frequent, are not universal.

Apart from the plants, among which diatoms are specially abundant in some parts of the surface, the components of the pelagic fauna are roughly given as follows:Protozoa are numerous, including Foraminifera, Radiolaria, many infusorians-notably Noctiluca, so frequent a cause of phosphorescence at the surface. Among the Cœlenterata, while the sea-firs are littoral, their sexual stage, the medusoid, is pelagic; and we have also as pelagic forms the true Medusæ or jelly-fish, and the colonial Siphonophora, as well as the beautiful Ctenophores. Not a few worms are pelagic, including the curious chatopods palolo (q.v.). Echinoderms are usually either littoral or abyssal, but one holothurian, at least, is pelagic. A great number of Crustacea are pelagic, while the insects of the family Halobatida are also found in the open sea. Among molluscs are included not only such purely pelagic groups as pteropods and heteropods, but also many cephalopods. Not a few of the tunicates are pelagic, the list including solitary forms such as Appendicularia, as well as colonies such as the phosphorescent Pyrosoma. Again, there are many pelagic fishes, some turtles and snakes, as well as not a few mammals. But the pelagic fauna include not only many adult forms, but also a great number of larvæ belonging to littoral adults. Thus the larvæ of echinoderms are found in the open water, though the adults are not, and many littoral molluscs have pelagic young. See Hickson's Story of Life in the Seas (1898); Brook's Foundations of Zoology (1899).

Pelagius, a heresiarch of the fourth century, was apparently of Gaelic origin; his name, Mor

Pelagius

gan or Marigena, was translated Pelagius. His theological system may be thus condensed:-(1.) Men are born in the same state in which Adam was created. (2.) Adam's sin affected himself only. (3.) Death is not punishment for sin. (4.) Adam's guilt is not imputed to his descendants. (5.) Children who died before baptism are not therefore lost, though the Pelagians held peculiar views with regard to the unbaptized. (6.) Human nature is not depraved, nor is sin hereditary. 7.) The propagation of sin would imply injustice on the part of God. (8.) Sinful propen

286

banished by the Emperor Honorius in 418. It is supposed that he finally retired to Great Britain. The 'semi-Pelagians' were those who attempted a reconciliation between the doctrines of free will and predestination and election; but the times in which they lived were not favorable to compromises. See the Works of St. Augustine, Eng. trans. by Marcus Dods (1892, etc.), and Fisher's History of the Christian Doctrine (1896).

Pelargonium, a genus of herbaceous and shrubby plants, belonging to the order Geraniaceæ, mostly natives of S. Africa. They

Mont Pelée.

(From a stereograph, copyright 1902, by Underwood & Underwood.)

sities are not necessarily sinful.
(9.) Man has the power not only
to sin, but to perceive and to do
what is good. (10.) Therefore
man is capable of procuring his
own salvation by a proper use of
his inborn power. Pelagius ad-
mitted the grace of Jesus Christ
and the efficacy of baptism for
the forgiveness of past sins, but
laid great stress on man's own
responsibility and self-help. He
resided at Rome for some years
with an Irish monk, Coelestius.
An acute controversy developed
between the Pelagians and the
orthodox. Among the latter St.
Augustine, bishop of Hippo, took
the chief part. Pelagius was con-
demned by Pope Zosimus, and

are usually called 'geraniums' and bear irregular flowers, each with five imbricate sepals, and usually with five petals. The flowers are usually borne in few-flowered umbels, the peduncles being axillary. The familiar pelargoniums are usually hybrids obtained from a small number of original species. Among gardeners, pelargoniums are commonly classified as zonal or bedding, fancy, decorative, show, ivy-leaved, and variegated-leaved. They are all of comparatively easy culture, liking a light, sandy, well-drained soil, containing a little cow manure and leaf-mould. They do not require much pot-room, and should not be over-supplied with

Pelew Islands

water, especially in winter. The ivy-leaved section requires much more water than do the other kinds. They are easily propagated by means of cuttings placed in very sandy soil in a warm house or pit in spring. By skilfully regulating the temperature and the water supply, and by judicious pinching out of buds, pelargoniums may be had in flower at any time of the year. Damp and closeness are the principal things to ward against, and plenty of air should be given at all times. The only insect pest of much consequence is the green fly.

Pelasgians, the primitive population of ancient Greece, in whole or in part. It is very probable that they were the builders of Tiryns, Mycenae, and the originators of the Mycenæan civilization. See MYCENEAN CIVILIZATION.

Pelée, MONT, active volcano in the N.W. part of the isl. of Martinique, W. Indies, noted for its cataclysmic eruptions in 1902. Eruptions had previously occurred, in 1762 and 1851. Prior to 1902 the summit rose to 4,200 ft.; for some time subsequently, through the extrusion of a giant core of rock, the elevation was upwards of 5,000 ft. The disruption of this obelisk has again reduced the height to about 4,400 ft. On May 8, 1902, the town of St. Pierre and 30,000 inhabitants were annihilated. On August 30 of the same year another eruption destroyed Morne Rouge and other villages. See Heilprin, Mont Pelée and the Tragedy of Martinique (1902), The Tower of Mont Pelée (1904), and various papers by the same author and by E. Otis Hovey in Science, the American Journal of Science, the bulletins of the American Museum of Natural History and the National Geographical Society, etc.; also Lacroix, La Montagne Pelée et ses Eruptions (1904).

Peleus, in ancient Greek legend, the king of the Myrmidons in Thessaly. He joined in the hunt of the Calydonian boar, but accidentally killed his fatherin-law, Eurytion, and had to flee. Taking refuge with Acastus at Iolcos, he was accused by Acastus's wife of attempting her honor, and Acastus left Peleus on Mt. Pelion without weapons, and at the mercy of the Centaurs. But Peleus escaped. It was at this time that he married the goddess Thetis; Achilles was their only child.

Pelew Islands, the westernmost group in Micronesia, less than 550 m. E. of the Philippines, included since 1899 in the German New Guinea Protectorate. Total area, about 200 sq. m. The largest, Babeltuap, is 30 m. long.