Piegan

N.W. of Humacao and 27 m. S.E. of San Juan in the district of Humacao at the E. end of the island. A road connects it with Humacao and San Juan. It is in a mountainous country containing mineral deposits. Iron is mined here, and it is the chief town of jurisdiction for eastern Porto Rico. Pop. of the district (1899) 8,602.

Piegan. See BLACKFEET.

Pierce, FRANKLIN (1804–69), fourteenth President of the United States, born at Hillsboro, N. H., Nov. 23, 1804. His father, who died in 1839, was one of the most prominent men in New Hampshire, and twice governor of the state. Franklin attended academies and schools in Hancock, Francestown, and Exeter, and in 1820 entered Bowdoin College. Among his classmates were Hawthorne, John P. Hale, and Longfellow. He studied law in the office of Levi Woodbury at Portsmouth, at a law school in Northampton, Mass., and in the office of Judge Edmund Parker at Amherst, N. H. In 1827 he was admitted to the bar. The time was favorable for the development_of his natural interest in politics. He became a warm supporter of Jackson, whose defeat in the Presidential campaign of 1824 had made him the logical candidate of the new democracy in 1828. In 1829 Pierce entered the N. H. legislature, where he served four years, the last two as speaker of the House. In 1832 he was elected a representative in Congress, where he also served four years. He was not prominent in debate, but he served on several important committees, and was a consistent supporter of the administration. His strict constructionist attitude, to which he always adhered, showed itself in his opposition to the proposed renewal of the charter of the Bank of the United States, and his support of Jackson's Maysville Road veto.

In 1837 he succeeded John Page in the Senate, enjoying the distinction of being the youngest member of that body. Here he opposed (1841) the bill to create the Fiscal Bank of the United States,' and declared his opposition to removals from office for

political reasons. He resigned his seat Aug. 31, 1842, mainly, it would seem, on account of the health of his wife, and resumed the practice of law at Concord, whither he had removed in 1838. Here he shortly rose to acknowledged leadership of the bar. Although he held no political office, his leadership of the Democratic party in N. H. was also unquestioned. For the rapidly growing anti-slavery views he had no sympathy. In his opinion, slavery was entitled to Federal pro

435

tection under the Constitution, and he opposed consistently every effort to hinder or restrict it. He advocated the annexation of Texas. In 1845 he was offered an appointment to the Senate, to fill a vacancy caused by the appointment of Levi Woodbury as associate justice of the Supreme Court;` but the offer was declined, as well as the Democratic nomination for governor. He also declined an invitation to enter Polk's cabinet as attorney-general. On the outbreak of the Mexican War in 1846, Pierce enlisted as a private, but was shortly commissioned colonel of the Ninth New Hampshire Infantry, and on March 5, 1847, was made a brigadier-general of volunteers. He went to Vera Cruz, served under Gen. Scott in the campaign against the City of Mexico, and in the battle of Contreras, Sept. 19, was severely injured by a fall from his horse. He was one of the commissioners in the fruitless peace negotiations with Santa Anna.

In March, 1848, the war having ended, he resigned his commission and returned to Concord, where he resumed his practice. He was president of the state constitutional convention of 1850; but the amendments permitting Roman Catholics to hold office and abolishing the property qualification, adopted by the convention under his leadership, were rejected at the polls. The Compromise Measures of 1850, including the Fugitive Slave Law, received his approval. In Jan., 1852, the Democratic state convention of N. H. nominated Pierce for President, but he refused to permit his name to be used. Under the lead, however, of Senator James W. Bradbury of Maine, his classmate and friend, his candidacy was skilfully nursed. In the Democratic national convention at Baltimore, in June, his name did not appear until the thirty-fifth ballot; on the forty-ninth ballot he received 282 votes in a total of 288. At the election in November he received 254 electoral votes against 42 given for Gen. Scott, the Whig candidate, carrying all the states except Massachusetts, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee. His popular vote was 1,601,494, against 1,386,580 for Scott and 156,667 for the Free Soil candidate, John P. Hale.

His inaugural address maintained the constitutionality of slavery and the Fugitive Slave Law, and urged the cessation of sectional agitation. His cabinet was a strong one, and its membership continued unchanged throughout his administration. The leading events of his administration were the settlement of the Mexican boundary controversy by the Gadsden purchase; the adjust

Pierce City

ment of a controversy with Great Britain over the fisheries, and the conclusion of a treaty providing for reciprocity with Canada for ten years; a commercial treaty with Japan following upon the expedition of Commodore Perry; the Ostend Manifesto (q.v.); the reorganization of the consular and diplomatic service; the establishment of the United States Court of Claims; and the completion of surveys for a Pacific railroad. In the great Kansas controversy (1854-57), his strict-construction attitude placed him in open and bitter hostility to the free state party, and called down upon him the denunciation of anti-slavery men_throughout the country. In the Democratic National Convention of 1856 he showed at first considerable strength, but failed of renomination. On the expiration of his term, he travelled in Europe for about three years. The remainder of his life was passed in retirement in Concord. He sided with the Union in 1861. Pierce died at Concord, Oct. 8, 1869. See Carroll's Review of Pierce's Administration (1856) and J. F. Rhodes's History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 (1901); also the campaign biographies by Nathaniel Hawthorne (q.v.) and D. W. Bartlett, both published in 1852.

Pierce, GEORGE FOSTER (181184), American M. E. bishop, son of Lovick Pierce (q.v.), was born in Greene co., Ga., and graduated (1829) at Franklin College, Athens, Ga. He studied law, but deciding to become a minister, joined the Georgia Conference of the M. E. Church in 1831, and filled pastorates in that and the South Carolina Conference until 1839. From 1839 to 1842 he was president of Georgia Female College, Macon, and from 1849 to 1854 president of Emory College, Oxford, Ga. In 1854 he was elected a bishop of the M. E. Church. His Sermons and Addresses, edited by Bishop Haygood, were published in 1886. See Smith's Life (1888).

Pierce, LOVICK (1785-1879), American clergyman, was born in Halifax co., N. C., and joined the South Carolina Conference of the M. E. Church in 1805. He was a chaplain in the U. S. army during the War of 1812, and subsequently studied medicine and practised until 1823, when he resumed preaching. He was a delegate to several general conferences, and besides gaining great reputation as a pulpit orator, wielded much power in the councils of the M. E. Church (South) after its organization in 1846.

Pierce City, city, Lawrence co., Mo., 43 m. s.w. by w. of Springfield, on the St. L. and S.

Pieria

Fran. R. R. It has a canning factory, and manufactures lime, flour, wagons, lumber, etc. It is a shipping place for agricultural produce and live-stock. The electric-lighting plant and waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality. The first settlement was made here in 1868, and the place was incorporated in 1870. Pop. (1900) 2,151.

Pieria, a strip of country on the coast of Macedonia, between the mouths of the Peneus and Haliacmon. Its early inhabitants were Thracians, who appear to have originated the worship of the Muses, often called Pierides for that reason.

Pierola, NICHOLAS DE (1839) general and president of Peru, born at Camana. He became minister of finance (1869). On account of a charge of misappropriation of public funds he retired to the United States, but was allowed to return to Lima (1879). He was an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency (1890), but was elected in 1895, and held office till 1899.

Pierpont, FRANCIS HARRISON (1814-99), American politician, born in Monongalia co., Va. He graduated at Alleghany College in 1839, and was admitted to the bar, settling at Fairmount, Va. He was one of the leaders of the Union party in Va., and when the state seceded led in the organization of a loyal state government in the western counties, and was elected governor by a convention held at Wheeling, June 11, 1861, and subsequently elected by the people of the loyal part of the state. Pierpont rendered great assistance to the national government. When West Virginia was admitted as a separate state in 1863, he was recognized by the administration as governor of the old state, and established the seat of government at Alexandria. He was governor until 1868, when he returned to his home in Fairmount, now in West Virginia. He served in the state legislature in 1870, and subsequently as U. S. collector of internal revenue.

Pierpont, JOHN (1785-1866), American poet, was born at Litchfield, Conn., and graduated (1804) at Yale. After several years' work as private tutor, he studied law, and was admitted to the Mass. bar in 1812. He practised at Newburyport for a short time, then engaged in business, and finally prepared himself for the Uni

tarian ministry at the Harvard Divinity School. He was ordained pastor of the Hollis Street Church, Boston, in 1819, remaining in charge until 1845. Difficulties with his congregation over his advocacy of the

436

abolition and temperance movements led him to resign in the latter year, and he accepted a Unitarian pastorate in Troy, N. Y. From 1849 to 1856 he was pastor of the Congregational Church in Medford, Mass. Early in the Civil War he served as a chaplain in the Union army, but was obliged by infirmity to resign and accept a clerkship in the Treasury Department Washington, where his venerable appearance and patriotic record made him a leading figure in the literary colony gathered there at the time. His poems were collected as Airs of Palestine (1816, new ed. 1846) and AntiSlavery Poems (1843).

at

Pierre, city, S. Dakota, capital of the state and co. seat of Hughes co., on the Missouri R. and on the Chi. and N. W. R. R., 110 m. w. of Huron. Situated in a great agricultural and stock-raising district, it is the chief centre in the state for the shipment of cattle and the leading market for the Black Hills. Abundant natural gas furnishes light, heat, and power. A government training school for Indians is located here. The buildings include a public library, St. Mary's Hospital, and the state house. The city was settled in 1880 and its present charter was granted in 1881. Pop. (1905) 2,794.

Pierrepont, EDWARDS (181792), American lawyer and politician, born at North Haven, Conn. He graduated at Yale in 1837, and after practising law for a few years in Columbus, O., settled in New York in 1845, where he soon took high rank at the bar. He was judge of the superior court in 1857-60, member of the state constitutional convention in 1867, U. S. district attorney in 1867-70, attorney - general of the U. S. in 1875-76, and minister to Great Britain in 1876-77. He was a member of the Committee of Seventy which fought the Tweed ring.'

Pierson, ABRAHAM (c. 16451707), American educator, was born in all likelihood at Southampton, L. I., N. Y., and graduated (1668) at Harvard. He was ordained to the ministry in the following year, and was made colleague of his father at Newark, N. J., in 1672. From 1678 to 1696 he was pastor of the New Church at Newark, and, after filling pastorates at Greenwich and Killingworth, Conn., was elected in 1701 first rector or president of Yale College, holding this position until his death. See YALE UNIVERSITY.

Pierson, ARTHUR TAPPAN (1837), American clergyman, was born in New York city, and graduated (1857) at Hamilton College. Entering the Congre

Pietists

gational ministry he was pastor of churches in Conn. and N. Y. until 1863, when he became a Presbyterian. From that year until 1891 he was pastor in various Eastern and middle Western cities, and from 1891 to 1893 was in charge of the Metropolitan Tabernacle, London, England. During 1902-3 he presided over Christ Church, London. Dr. Pierson was editor of the Missionary Review of the World from its foundation in 1888. Among his numerous religious writings are Many Infallible Proofs (1886), Crisis of Missions (1886), The Heart of the Gospel (1892), Seven Years in Sierra Leone (1899), The Modern Mission Century (1901), The Bible and Spiritual Criticism (1906).

Pierson, or Pearson, HENRY HUGO (1815-73), English musical composer, born at Oxford; was professor of music at Edinburgh (1844). He composed music for the second part of Goethe's Faust, the operas Leila and Contarini, the oratorios Jerusalem and Hezekiah (unfinished), and Ye Mariners of England.

Piers Plowman. LAND, WILLIAM.

See LANG

Pietà, a work of art representing the lamentation of the women over the body of Christ after its removal from the cross. The best known are the paintings of Van Dyck at Munich and Antwerp. of Andrea del Sarto at Vienna, and of Quentin Matsys at Antwerp.

Pietermaritzburg, tn., cap. of Natal, 46 m. N.w. of Durban, was founded by the Boers in 1839. It has government buildings, a town hall, hospital, and asylum, and is the see of an Anglican bishop. Pop. (1902) 34,676, of whom 19,521 were Europeans.

Pietists, a party in the Lutheran Church, which appeared in Germany at the end of the 17th century. It owed its origin and growth mainly to the popular discontent at the arid dogmatism which the church's continuous conflict with Geneva and Rome had made endemic in the Lutheran pulpits. It was also a protest against the low state of public morals caused by the miseries of the Thirty Years' War. The leader of the movement was Philipp Jakob Spener (16351705), known by his work Pia Desideria (1676). Other shining lights of pietism were Francke, Paul Anton, and Schade. They laid great stress on the emotional in religion and decried dogmas and ecclesiastical institutions. The extravagance of the pietists brought the movement into contempt, and the name has now an opprobrious signification, implying lack of intelligent belief

Pietra Dura

or mere affectation of piety. See histories of Pietism (in German) by Schmidt (1863) and Ritschl (3 vols., 1880-86) and life of Spener by Wildenhahn (trans. 1881).

Pietra Dura, Florentine inlaid work of the finest kind, formed of stones of extreme hardness, such as agate, jasper, chalcedony, carnelian, amethyst, and lapislazuli, set in a slab of marble, generally of a dark color. De

signs are drawn on the marble, and cut out with a saw and file, the stones, formed to shape, being afterwards fixed in their places; the whole work is then attached to a thicker slab. It is also known as pietre commesse and lavoro di commesso.

an

Piezometer, instrument for measuring the compressibility of liquids. It consists of a cylin

1. Inner portion; A, bulb containing gas to be tested; B, pellet of mercury; c, tube with lower end open and graduated to show pressure of water.

drical bulb and tube to contain the liquid, which is enclosed by immersing the open end of the tube in some mercury at the foot of a strong glass cylinder. The rest of the cylinder is filled with water, which is shut in securely by a metal cap through which a tight-fitting screw passes. On screwing in the latter the mercury is forced up the tube of the bulb, compressing the liquid, the bulb only suffering compression, as though it were composed of solid glass, for the pressure is exerted equally inside and outside. The change in capacity thus caused is, however, difficult to allow for, and the apparatus was consequently modified by Regnault so that the effect on the capacity of the bulb by the pressure could be measured. The pressure itself was determined by the simultaneous compression of some gas. See MANOMETERS.

Pig (zoological). The family Suidæ includes the cloven-hoofed ungulate mammals whose domestic races are called pigs, hogs,

437

or swine. They are closely related to the Hippopotomida and the Dicotylidæ or peccaries (the latter being sometimes popularly classed with the Suida), and the three families together form the group Suinæ. Among the more important characters of the pig family are the presence of an elongated mobile snout, which terminates in a naked disc-like surface bearing the nostrils, and of four complete toes on each foot, of which two touch the ground and the other two, though elevated, are useful in preventing the foot from readily sinking in marshy ground. The cheek teeth are of an unspecialized type, and the canines, or tusks, are well developed, the upper ones curving more or less outward or upward; the stomach is simple. Pigs are generally hairy, the babirussa being an exception. The food consists largely of succulent vegetable matter, but may include nuts, tough roots, etc., and also animal matter, as fish, shell fish, etc. The animals are more or less gregarious. The males are fierce fighters, and are often hunted for sport. The flesh of wild pigs is palatable, boar's head being a famous dish. The Suida

are confined to the Old World, the peccaries to the New. The type genus of the Suidæ is Sus, of which the European and Asiatic wild boar (q.v.) is the most prominent species. Three others are found in India and the Malayan region, and possibly another in Western Africa. Different in several ways from the typical members of the genus are the river-hogs, or boschvarks, of Africa, and the red bush-pig of W. Africa, as well as by a form in Madagascar.

DOMESTIC PIGS.-All known domestic breeds of swine may be divided into two groups: The European hog (Sus scrofa) sprung from and resembling the wild boar, and the Asiatic pigs, presumably descended from the Indian wild boar (Sus cristatus).

The numerous breeds of domestic pigs have resulted from selecting and crossing under favorable conditions to perpetuate desirable characteristics. In Great Britain there were apparently two native breeds, the old English hog and the breed found in the Scotch Highlands. From these the modern breeds common in Great Britain and the United States have been developed by crossing with foreign breeds, principally Chinese and Neapolitans.

The breeds with a white color, fine bones, thin skin, short legs, and a tendency to fatten at an early age, take these characteristics from the Chinese hog. The black breeds, like the Essex, obtain their marked characteristics

Pig

from the Neapolitans. The Yorkshire, the principal English white breed, is divided into three subvarieties: The Large Whites or Large Yorks, Middle Whites, represented by the Cheshires, and the small Whites or Small Yorkshires, which are considered the smallest and finest of the white breeds. They mature early and fatten quickly. Although best are rather fine-boned and not coarse, the Large Whites are noted for their great size.

sorts.

the

In England the Yorkshire pigs are very popular, as white swine are generally preferred to other The American breed of Chester Whites, which originated in Chester County, Pa., is said to have been derived from the Yorkshire. Pigs of this breed are very large, and individuals have attained a weight of 1,300 pounds. A lack of hardiness and a tendency to degenerate under careless treatment or neglect are characteristics attributed to this breed.

The Berkshire pig, which originated in Berkshire county, England, is probably the most popular and widely disseminated of all breeds. It is black in color, with white on the face and occasional splashes elsewhere, and is of large size. It fattens readily and the quality of the pork is very superior.

The Poland-Chinas are also very popular in the pork producing regions of the United States. This breed, which is of American origin, having originated in Ohio, is black in color. In spite of the name it is doubtful if any Polish blood was introduced in its development. The Poland-Chinas as now bred are similar to the Berkshires, but show rather more white in their markings. They are among the largest breeds, but have been much improved in fineness of bone, early maturity, and tendency to fatten at an early

age.

The Jersey Reds, Durocs, or Red Berkshires, are a breed of unknown origin, and have been quite extensively bred in New Jersey. They are rather coarse, but are considered hardier than the finer-boned breeds.

The Tamworth is a dark chestnut in color, more or less spotted with black, and is large, coarse, and leggy. The Essex pig, an English breed, is entirely black, the coat fine and rather thin.

Breeding. The SOW farrows twice a year, and generally produces from nine to twelve pigs at a birth. The period of gestation is sixteen weeks, and the first litter ought to be produced at sixteen months old. Sows ought to be kept rather poor, and be allowed plenty of exercise and as much freedom as possible.

Care and Treatment.-Pigs are

Pig

raised in all parts of the United States, but the great pork-producing section is the Mississippi valley, where_corn is abundant and cheap. The pigs are commonly pastured during the earlier stages of growth. Frequently a herd of swine follows steers fed on whole corn, the swine feeding upon the undigested grain. Alfalfa pasturage is an important crop for pigs in some sections, and in the Southern United States, Cow-peas, peanuts, chufas, and other forage crops are depended upon. Generally speaking, corn is the most important pig feed in the United States, 5 or 6 pounds

on

As

an average being required for a pound of gain. Sometimes it is ground, but, particularly in the Middle West, it is fed largely on the ear. this grain contains only a small percentage of ash, pigs fed on it exclusively have weak bones. Wood ashes are fed to counteract this trouble. By-products from creameries-that is, skim milk and buttermilk-are excellent feed for pigs of all ages, the pork being of superior quality.

At the present time, quickly maturing pigs of 200 or 300 pounds are preferred to the larger pigs which were formerly raised. A pig of such weight can be produced economically and is preferred by the packing houses. In general the food required for a pound of gain increases as the animals grow. Experiments have shown that it is most profitable to market pigs at 200 to 250 pounds.

Though prohibited by the Jews, and later by the Mohammedans, pork has been a popular flesh food since earliest times, and constitutes a large part of the diet of many nations. Pork is rich in fat and so is a hearty food. When of good quality, there is no reason to suppose that it is unwholesome, as is sometimes claimed. Great quantities of the lean cuts are eaten fresh. The ham and shoulders corned and smoked, and fat cuts are cured for salt pork or bacon. Lard, or rendered fat, is an important culinary product. Pig skin is tanned, making a leather popular for saddles, for travelling bags, etc. The bristles are of much value for brush making.

are

Bibliography. The Book of the Pig, Long (London, 1889); On the Pig, Harris (New York, 1896); Swine Husbandry, Coburn (New York, 1888); Pigs, Breeds and Management, Spencer (London, 1897). The Hog Industry, G. M. Rommel, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau Animal Industry, Bul. 47. DISEASES. Of these the most important is known as hog cholera, though other names,

439

The

such as swine fever, pig typhoid, are used occasionally. In the United States during 1877 swine fever caused heavy losses. cause is a specific ovoid bacterium, which produces a form of bloodpoisoning, and exhibits its most characteristic lesions upon the mucous lining of the intestines. The virus has great vitality, and remains active in infected premises for weeks after removal of diseased animals. The average period of incubation is from eight to fourteen days. The ordinary acute form of swine fever produces great depression, dullness, loss of appetite, high temperature, rapid breathing; the ears droop, and the animal coughs frequently. At first constipation exists, but this is followed by diarrhoea. Discoloration of the skin may be observed as red spots, or as a diffused deep redness on the skin of the ears, inside of thighs, and on under parts of abdomen. The discharges from the bowels have a peculiar smell. The animal becomes rapidly emaciated, and generally dies in from eight to ten days after attack. The chronic form may last from four to eight weeks. These partly recovered pigs are tremely dangerous, as they are capable of infecting healthy animals. The mortality varies from 50 to 75 per cent. The stomach and intestines, with their glands, are the chief seat of the disease. Hæmorrhagic spots are frequently

ex

European Pigeons-1, Rock-dove;

noticed in the muscular and subcutaneous tissues of pigs that have died from hog cholera. Treatment is useless.

Tuberculosis.-Uncooked milk and flesh containing tubercular matter, when given as food to pigs, sometimes induce tubercufosis, particularly in young animals. The symptoms are not well marked during life, but in young pigs digestive troubles, gradual wasting, and debility may be noted as results of intestinal tuberculosis.

Swine erysipelas is a bacterial disease which sometimes occurs in U. S., and is also known as

Pigeon

diamond skin disease. The contagium is fixed, and is usually conveyed to the animal through the digestive organs. The period

of incubation is from three to four days. The symptoms are severe constitutional disturbance and high temperature; large patches of skin become red or purple; the skin of the ears and tail may slough off; diarrhoea is generally present; and the lungs are often oedematous. The mortality varies from 50 to 85 per cent.

Dietetic diseases, such as gastritis, gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, constipation, and indigestion, are common among pigs.

Many parasites infest the porcine race. The encysted form of the Tania solium of man, frequently found in the muscular tissues of the pig, gives a spotted or mottled appearance to the flesh, which is recognized as 'measly' pork. Trichinosis of the pig, due to the presence of minute round worms (Trichina spiralis) coiled up in the flesh, is a condition dangerous to man, as the flesh, improperly cooked, and eaten, may convey the trichinæ to the intestine, and cause serious disease.

See Veterinary Pathology, by Friedberger and Fröhner, trans. by Captain Hayes (new ed. 19045); also Text-book of Veterinary Medicine, by James Law.

Pigeon, or DOVE, names applied in the extended sense to all the members of the family

2, Wood-pigeon; 3, Stock-dove. Columbidæ, or restricted to the numerous species of the genus Columba, to which belong the domesticated pigeon and the wild pigeons of Western Europe. The family is cosmopolitan, being most abundantly represented in the Malay Archipelago, New Guinea, and the neighboring islands. In all pigeons the body is compact, while the power of flight is usually great, and the habits are generally similar to those of the domesticated form. (See FRUIT PIGEONS.) The three European species have interest for all the world because of their associations. They are the wood-pigeon