Pilcomayo

apparently to a distance of from twenty to forty miles from land. Here they become mature and shed their eggs. The eggs are buoyant, and float about separately on the surface. The young forms appear on the western coasts of France from May onwards, and have then a length of from five to seven inches. It is these young forms which constitute the sardines of commerce. The French fisheries are chiefly carried on from Brest southward to La Rochelle, and in the Mediterranean and off Portugal.

The fish are captured both in drift-nets and in seines. The sardines are salted as soon as they are taken into port, and subsequently cooked in oil, and then soldered into tin boxes which are filled with pure olive oil. Concarneau in Brittany is the chief centre of this industry.

Pilcomayo, riv. See PARANÁ. Pile Dwellings. The custom of living in houses built upon a platform supported by wooden piles is of great antiquity, and obviously had its origin in the desire for security against wild beasts. Pile dwellings are still common in many parts of the world-e.g. in the Gulf of Venezuela, and on the shores of Borneo, New Guinea, and Celebes. In the Japanese island of Yezo, also, the Aïnos build their storehouses, and sometimes their dwellings, in this fashion, the supports being frequently the trunks of trees standing as they grew, but sawn off at a height of nine feet from the ground; access to the platform is obtained by a movable log, of the same height, notched as a ladder. In this, as in some other instances, the pile structures stand

upon solid ground. But in many cases the platforms have been reared upon piles planted in the bed of a lake, with their upper portions standing some six or eight feet out of the water. Of this description were the pfahlbauten, in the lakes of Switzerland and Northern Italy. The platform was often of great extent, and the cluster of dwellings upon it could hold a formidable number of fighting men. These pile dwellings were placed near the shore; one near Hagneck, in the Lake of Bienne, was united to the shore by a pier sixty-five yards in length.

The Swiss lakes also possessed what Dr. Keller calls 'fascine dwellings,' which resembled the Gallic fortifications described by Cæsar, and also the crannogs of Scotland and Ireland. The platform, in this instance, rested upon fagots (fascines) sunk in the water. The British crannogs, almost wholly situated in Scotland and Ireland, are largely composed of stones, bound together

VOL. IX.-Jan. 10.

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by a framework of huge logs on the principle of the Swiss fascine dwellings.' Dr. Keller is inclined to regard the first century of the Christian era as the date when the Swiss lake dwellings ceased to be occupied; but the crannogs of the British Isles are referred to in 1608. See Keller's Lake Dwellings (Eng. trans. 1866); Wood Martin's Lake Dwellings of Ireland (1886); Munro's Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings (1882) and Lake Dwellings of Europe (1890).

Oc

Piles, or HEMORRHOIDS, are chiefly due to the presence of some obstruction to the portal circulation. Thus alcoholic patients often suffer from cirrhosis of the liver and from piles. Hæmorrhoids may be either external or internal, but not uncommonly both varieties are found in the same patient. casionally the term hæmorrhoid is applied to an oedematous swelling of one of the muco-cutaneous folds of the anus, but it should be restricted to venous affections. Pathologically, hæmorrhoids are composed of two elements-a bunch of small varicose veins and an overgrowth of connective tissue. In the external variety the connective tissue predominates, so that it does not bleed much when cut across. In internal piles the veins predominate, and are apt to bleed copiously. External piles give rise to a good deal of pain; but they usually yield readily to treatment. The internal variety cause great pain and discomfort from prolapse and inflammation. Constipation must be avoided. Perfect cleanliness should be secured by washing with soap and water after each evacuation. In addition, should there be hæmorrhage, witch-hazel ointment, or the ointment of galls and opium, should be introduced into the rectum after each movement, or more frequently.

Piles, SAMUEL HENRY (1858), American legislator, born in Livingston co., Ky. He received a private school education, began practice of law at Snohomish, Wash., in 1883, removed to Seattle in 1886, was assistant prosecuting attorney for three counties in the '80's, city attorney of Seattle in 1887-89, and counsel for the Pacific Coast Co. in 1895-1905. He was elected U. S. Senator (Rep.) for the term 1905-11,

Piles and Pile Driving. A load may be supported on soft or treacherous ground by driving down one or a number of long, heavy stakes or round timbers, called piles. This makes a pile foundation, a device of great antiquity (see PILE DWELLINGS). Piles are used in the same way to-day, in very great extent, affording the cheapest method of securing a foundation

Piles and Pile Driving

where the soil will not carry the load directly, or where it is not convenient to spread the foundation sufficiently. Timber piles are most used, but in recent times iron, concrete, and reinforced concrete have found application. These are sometimes driven, but wroughtiron or steel piles are often screwed into the soil (screw piles), the bottom end being fitted with a broad-bladed single-turn screw of cast-iron (see sketch), while some concrete piles are formed by ramming concrete into a hole made by driving a steel pile and withdrawing it.

Sheet piles (distinguished from the above or bearing piles) are so named because they serve as sheeting, i.e., face lining, to hold up the earth wall of an excavation, but are driven to place like piles. If a trench or pit is to be dug in unstable soil, especially soil carrying much water, a complete belt of sheet piles may be driven around the site and the earth then excavated inside, the sheet piles being braced from within as they are exposed. The simplest sheet piles are merely planks driven vertically into the ground, each one close beside the preceding; the lower end of each pile is sharpened or, preferably, bevelled off, so that the point is against the last-driven pile, in order to cause the driving to draw them tight together. In most cases sheet piling is required to keep out water, so that it should be as tight as possible. Tongueand-grooved sheet piling was therefore frequently used even for heavy work, in spite of the weakness of this jointing, until the invention of the Wakefield triplelap sheet pile, which consists of three thicknesses of plank bolted together, the middle one being set over sideways to form the tongue at one edge of the pile and the groove at the other. Since about 1900, rolled steel interlocking sheet piling has come into extensive use, in numerous patented forms; tightness and great strength are its features. Concrete sheet piles with steel reinforcement have also been used recently where the sheeting was to serve permanently; one of the latest interlocking styles is shown by sketch.

Bearing piles usually extend through the soft upper soil to a firmer stratum below, their carrying power then being due to the support of the pile-point in the hard soil. When they do not reach firm soil, they act either by distributing their load through the soft soil by virtue of frictional hold, or by compacting the soft soil (by displacement), and thus making it equivalent to firmer ground; the latter action is often

Piles and Pile Driving

displayed in the case of land foundations in alluvial soil. Screw piles have a greatly enlarged bearing area by virtue of the screw.

Wooden piles are nearly always round timbers, 6 to 10 in. through at the point, 10 to 16 in. at the butt, the length being 20 to 60 ft. (in rare cases even 100 ft.) as needed. Piles should reach and cnter firm soil if possible, and, where this is at great depth, it may be necessary to lengthen the pile by splicing on another. This xpedient is rare and undesirable, however. Wooden piles are cheap, strong, and elastic, but unless wholly submerged decay makes them short-lived, while in sea-water the attack of marine borers (teredo and limnoria) makes wooden piles impossible in many locations (sewage-laden waters and fresh water are fatal to these animals). Metal piles were first employed for ocean structures such as piers. Cast-iron piles of various shapes of cross.section have been used, but the more recent concrete pile has rendered them obsolete. Steel piles are either tubular or of I-beam section; the former are sometimes

446

screwed down, sometimes jetted down, the latter usually driven. Their lightness, ease of transportation, and elasticity are valuable properties, counterbalanced by their rapid rusting, Concrete protection shells have been placed around steel piles in some cases. Sometimes wooden piles are protected against sea worms by the

same means.

Concrete piles, reinforced with several thick longitudinal steel rods and often, also, with a spiral wrapping or a set of closely spaced hoops, have proved amply able to resist the shock of driving with the hammer. A cushioning cap is needed for this, however. Some piles are molded with a central hole through which a water pipe can be passed for sinking the pile into the ground by jet action. The weight of the pile, often supplemented by light driving with the hammer, is sufficient to sink it through all ordinary soils. The plan of forming the pile in the ground is much used, however. There are several methods for this, all depending on first forming a hole in the ground to receive the concrete and then filling this with plain concrete or with rein

Piles and Pile Driving

forcing steel and concrete. In one method, the concrete is rammed into the hole by heavy drop hammers, tending to force the concrete out into the soil and thus form an enlarged bottom section. The Raymond pile is formed within a thin steel shell left in the hole after withdrawing the driving core. The Simplex method employs a strong tubular driving pile, through which the concrete is later rammed down, the steel pile being gradually pulled up.

The bearing power of piles is best determined by tests, as the great variation of the physical factors makes all attempts to compute their capacity unreliable. For proportioning a pile foundation in advance, many 'pile formulas' are current, but these have value only in the hands of an expert. Piles driven in ordinary soil to such a degree that several blows are required for the last inch of penetration, may usually be loaded with 10 to 15 tons safely; higher pile loadings have often been used in firm soil. The preceding refers to the bearing power as limited by the support afforded by the soil. Another kind of strength must be considered

Piles and Pile Driving

when the upper part of the pile is in soft mud or even projects up through water a considerable height; the buckling resistance of the pile may then be the limiting factor, and several notable failures have occurred through neglect of the fact.

The connection of superstructure with pile foundation, in the case of wooden piles, is accomplished by laying cap timbers over a row of piles and bolting them down, placing a further distributing layer over these. Where the whole length of the pile is in earth, a pit may be dug around their heads and filled with concrete to a foot or so above their tops; the loads may then rest directly on the concrete. In the case of concrete piles, the capping layer is always formed of concrete, and should be bonded to the piles by steel bars embedded in both. The

possibility of securing such monolithic connection of piles and supcrstructure is one of the most advantageous features of the concrete pile. Another very important advantage is that concrete piles may project above groundwater level withcut harm, while wooden piles must be wholly below water to avoid decay, and therefore require the stone, metal, or concrete superstructure to be of greater vertical extent, hence more costly.

The ordinary pile-driver consists of a pair of vertical guidetimbers (leads), braced on a supporting platform, and a hoisting engine mounted on the rear of the platform; a heavy weight or hammer sliding in the leads is hung from a rope passing over a sheave at the top down to the engine. The pile being set up between the leads with its point on the ground, the hammer is lifted, released at the top, and allowed to fall on the head of the pile; this procedure is repeated, driving the pile down, until the desired depth or the desired degree of resistance to further penetration is attained. The hammers of commercial piledrivers weigh 2,000 to 5,000 lbs., and are used with a fall of 10 to 35 ft. The Nasmyth steamhammer pile-driver is also much used. This has what is in effect a vertical steam-engine sliding in the leads and set on the pile head. Its heavy piston strikes the pile a rapid succession of short blows, which are more effective and less destructive to the pile-head than the heavier impacts of an ordinary driver hammer. Jetting piles down is done by means of a water pipe fastened along the side of the pile or passing through the center (in concrete piles), a stream of water under heavy pressure being forced through the pipe so as to Scour away the earth from in front of the pile point.

VOL. IX.-Jan. '10.

support. If the piles must take any considerable side-thrust they require to be braced either by tierods to some fixed object (footings of retaining walls of quays are often braced this way), or inclined piles (batter piles) must be driven into the foundation to take the lateral thrust (see sketch).

References: current numbers of Engineering News, Transactions Am. Soc. Civ. Engineering, and

the sacred lity of Mecca attracts devout Moslems from all parts of Islam. (See HADJ.) The achievement of the Mecca pilgrimage confers a certain sanctity upon the pilgrim, who has thenceforth the distinction of being a hajji. Similarly, those tian palmers who had journeyed to and from the Holy Land in the middle ages were invested with a like character. Trading

Chris

Pilgrimage of Grace

was a common occupation of the mediæval pilgrim.

Pilgrimage of Grace, a name adopted by religious insurgents in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, headed chiefly by Robert Aske -(1536). The rebels were suppressed in Lincolnshire, but took possesion of York. Thirty thousand strong, they marched to Doncaster, but were dispersed. In 1537 they again took arms, but were promptly suppressed.

Pilgrim Fathers, In American history, the name applied primarily to the forty-one male passengers (exclusive of servants) on the Mayflower (q.v.) who landed at Plymouth, Mass., in 1620, on

448

con

columna. Sir Christopher Wren constantly uses 'pillar' in describing both Roman and Gothic buildings. Column is now sidered as appropriated to the nomenclature of classical architecture, and pillar to the mediæval and other styles. Simple mediæval pillars consist of a single round or octagon shaft, with its base and capital; compound pillars consist of a central mass or body, round which are arranged several smaller shaftsthe arrangement, connection of the appended shafts, and the decorations varying considerably. In the Norman style simple pillars are generally massive, and

Dec. 11 (New Style, Dec. 21, the anniversary, Forefathers' Day, being celebrated on Dec. 22). These were chiefly members of a Separatist congregation, which had removed from the village of Scrooby, England, to Hoiland in 1608. The title is sometimes inaccurately applied to all the early settlers of Massachusetts who held similar religious views. See MASSACHUSETTS, PLYMOUTH COLONY.

Pilgrim Fathers, UNITED ORDER OF THE. A fraternal organization established in 1879 for the purpose of furnishing insurance. It has a supreme colony and 199 subordinate colonies with a total membership of 19,900 and has disbursed since its organization about $7,000,000. Its official organ is The Pilgrim.

Pilibhit, munic. tn. and cap. of Pilibhit dist., United Provinces, India, 31 m. N.E. of Bareilly. Manufactures metal vessels; exports rice, borax, pepper, sugar. Pop. (1901) 33,490.

Pillar, the pier on which the arches rest in decorative architecture, although the Latin mediæval writers employed the word VOL. IX.-Jan. '10.

or

are frequently circular, with capitals either of the same form or square. They are sometimes ornamented with channels flutes in various forms. In plain buildings a square or rectangular pillar or pier is occasionally found, but a polygonal, usually octagonal, pillar is also used, generally of lighter proportions than most of the other kinds; but besides these, compound or clustered pillars are numerous and varied. In the Early English style, plain circular or octagonal shafts are common; but many other and more complicated kinds of pillars are also employed.

Pillar of Hercules. See HERCULES.

Pillar Saints. See STYLITES. Pillau, or PILLAY, a Turkish dish of rice with fowl or mutton, raisins, almonds, chillies, and cardamons boiled or stewed together, and served up with sweet gravy and fried onions.

Pilling, JAMES CONSTANTINE (1846-95), American ethnologist, born in Washington, D. C., and was educated at Gonzaga College there. In 1875 he joined Maj. Powell's Rocky Mountain expe

Pillow

dition, and undertook the work of tabulating the vocabularies of the Indian tribes, and an examination of their mythology. In 1881 he became chief clerk of the Bureau of Ethnology, and in 1891 took charge of the ethnological work at the Smithsonian Institution. He published: Languages of the North American Indians (1885); Eskimo Language (1887); Siouan Languages (1887); Iroquoian Languages (1888); Muskhogean Languages (1889); Salishan Languages (1893); Wakashan Languages (1894); and Mexican Language (1895).

Pillory. This was a frame erected in a public place, with holes for the head and arms, in which malefactors were exposed to the public. The pillory was abolished by act of Congress in

1839.

Pillow, a block of metal introduced into machinery to support a bearing.

Pillow, Fort. A fortification in Tennessee, 40 miles north of Memphis at the junction of Cocl creek and the Mississippi river. It was constructed by the Confederates under direction of Gen. Gideon J. Pillow in 1861-62, but, after the defeat of the Confederate vessels on the river, was dismantled on May 25, 1862. Though immediately occupied and garrisoned by Federal forces, it served principally as a refuge for fugitive slaves and a recruiting station, rather than as a military post. In April, 1864, the garrison consisted of 262 colored troops and 295 men of the 13th Tennessee cavalry under command of Maj. L. F. Booth. The fort was attacked on April 12th by 1,500 men of Gen. N. B. Forrest's cavalry. The garrison. hoping to receive aid from Federal gunboats on the river and knowing also the feeling against both the colored troops and the "Tennessee Tories,' refused to surrender. The works were easily captured on the final assault and within a few minutes nearly 400 of the garrison were either killed or wounded. The large proportion of killed and wounded gave the name of the 'Fort Pillow Massacre.' The charge that men were shot after they had surrendered seems, however, to have been disproved by Wyeth, Life of N. B. Forrest (1899); and by Mathes, General Forrest (1902). See also Johnson and Buel, eds., Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (1888).

Pillow, GIDEON JOHNSON (1806-78), American lawyer and soldier, born in Williamson co., Tenn. He graduated at the University of Nashville in 1827, and practised law in Columbia, Tenn., until the beginning of the Mexican War, when he secured the ap

Pills

pointment of brigadier-general in command of the Tenn. volunteers, and served with both Gen. Taylor and Gen. Scott,

com

manding one wing of the latter's army in the campaign from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico. He was made major-general of volunteers April 13, 1847. After the war he resumed the practice of his profession. On July 9, 1861, he received a commission as brigadier-general in the Confederate army. He was in command at Belmont, and second in command at Fort Donelson, but escaped before the surrender (Feb., 1862). He saw little active service thereafter.

Pills are small spherical or nearly spherical masses of medicinal agents. From their size, they can be swallowed whole. The necessary amount of the active drug is thoroughly mixed with some suitable excipient, such as syrup, glycerin, or confection of roses, and the mixture is then divided accurately into the required number of pills, which are shaped by rolling between two flat surfaces. They may then be coated or varnished. All pills should be of recent make, especially those containing iron, which is apt to become oxidized and useless with age.

Pillsbury, HARRY NELSON (1872-1906), American chessplayer, born in Boston. He began to interest himself in chess when eighteen years old, and in 1895 won the international tournament at Hastings, England. In the tournaments from 1896 to 1902 inclusive he once tied for first place, was second four times, once third, and once tied for third. He at one time played blindfolded 22 games simultaneously. He was the first American to win the world's chess championship since it was won by Paul Morphy.

Pillsbury, JOHN SARGENT (1828-1901), American manufacturer and philanthropist, was born at Sutton, N. H., and received a common school education. He engaged in various trades and businesses until 1855, when he removed to St. Anthony (now a section of Minneapolis), Minn., and established a hardware business. In 1872 he became a member of his nephew's flour-milling firm, Charles A. Pillsbury & Co., with which he had previously been connected, and assisted in the work which had a large share in developing the grain business of the country. Mr. Pillsbury organized several Minnesota regiments at the outbreak of the Civil War. He was appointed a regent of the University of Minnesota in 1863, which institution he was largely instrumental in developing, and to which in 1889 he pre

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sented Science Hall, costing $150,000. He was state senator for most of the terms from 1864 to 1876, and governor of Minn. from 1876 to 1882. He endowed institutions in New Hampshire and gave $100,000 to the Home for Working Girls in Minneapolis.

Pillsbury, PARKER (1809-98), American abolitionist, born at Hamilton, Mass. He attended the Gilmanton (N. H.) Theological Seminary and the Andover Theological Seminary, but after acting as pastor of a Congregational church at New London, N. H., during 1839-40, he ceased to preach, and threw himself into the agitation against slavery. He was a lecturer for several abolition societies during 1840, and in 1845-46 edited the Herald of Freedom at Concord, N. H., and in 1866 the National Anti-Slavery Standard at New York. After the war he was for a time editor of Revolution, a womansuffrage paper published in New York, and was preacher for free religious societies in towns in O., Mich., and other states. Among his published works are Acts of the Anti-Slavery Apostles (1883, containing an autobiography); The Church as It Is (1885); and The Plague and Peril of Monopoly (1887).

Pilmoor, JOSEPH (1739-1825), Anglo-American clergyman, was born at Tadmouth, Yorkshire, England, and studied at John Wesley s school at Kingswood. He became one of Wesley's itinerant preachers in 1765, and emigrated to Philadelphia in 1769 for the purpose of introducing Methodism there; he preached in that city and in New York until 1774, when he returned to England. He retired from the Methodist ministry in 1785, having taken offence at apparent neglect by Wesley, and returned to the U. S. He was ordained a priest of the P. E. Church, in Philadelphia, the same year, and was long rector of St. Paul's Church in that city. He published Narrative of Labors in South Wales (1825), and left in manuscript an account of his American experiences, part of which has been published as The Western Pioneers (1881).

Pilocarpus, a genus of tropical American and W. Indian shrubs belonging to the order Rutacea. They bear simple spikes or racemes of green or purple flowers, with usually five fanceolate petals. P. pennatifolius is one of the sources of the pilocarpine used in medicine.

Pilon, GERMAIN (c. 1535-90), French sculptor, born in Paris; worked with his father as a sculptor at the abbey of Solesmes. Among his chief works are the decoration of the tomb of Francis I. and Catherine de' Medici, in

Pilot

the abbey of Saint Denis (1558); the tomb of Henry II., on which he was engaged from 1564 to 1583; The Three Graces, in the Louvre, which also possesses the monument to Valentine Balbiani; The Four Cardinal Virtues; and two bas-reliefs, Effigy of a Dead Woman and The Preaching of St. Paul.

Pilot, a person who is qualified and licensed to direct the navigation of vessels in narrow waters or along coasts. In foreign countries the practice varies somewhat, but (except in Great Britain, where licenses are issued by Trinity House) pilots are usually licensed by the port authorities. In the United States, pilots are licensed under state laws which in many cases provide for a state board of pilot commissioners. The employment of pilots by merchant vessels is compulsory in many ports and, even if this were not so, the rules of marine underwriters' associations would insure the use of a pilot in a large percentage of cases. Local regulations commonly provide for the issue of pilot licenses to the masters of vessels whose frequent entry of the port renders them qualified pilots; but the possession of a pilot license by the master does not always free the vessel from pilot fees, as in some ports a certain percentage of the regular fee is levied for the support of the pilotage establishment. In United States ports the pilots usually form pilot associations, under state laws, for the regulation of pilotage, the equalization of fees and expenses, etc. When a pilot is received on board a merchant ship he takes entire charge of her movements and navigation, subject to the right of the captain to supersede him if in his judgment this becomes necessary. On a man-of-war a pilot acts only in an advisory capacity. Pilots are carried in pilot boats and these usually lie well out to sea (5 to 200 miles) from the port, keeping in the regions commonly traversed by ships. Most pilot boats are sailing vessels (in the United States, generally schooners), but there are many steam pilot boats and their number is increasing. Pilot boats carry a pilot flag or signal and, if fitted with sails, the boat's number is painted on one of them in large figures. The pilotage fee ordinarily is based upon the draught of the ship, the charge per foot increasing with the draught.

The excellence of modern charts and the improvement in aids to navigation (buoys, beacons, lighthouses, etc.) have done much to decrease the importance of pilots. But the increase in the