Oliver

a position he retained until his death. He had a wide reputation as a teacher and attracted a large number of students to the university. He published A Treatise on Trigonometry (1886).

Oliver, PETER (1713-91), American loyalist, born at Boston. He graduated at Harvard in 1730, became a justice of the Superior Court of Massachusetts in 1756, and in 1771 chief justice. In 1774 he was impeached by the Massachusetts House for accepting his salary from the crown, but the General Court was prorogued before he could be tried. He left

56

(2,440 ft.), opposite the pool of Siloam. David fled from Absalom by way of the mount (2 Sam. 15:14, 30), and it was probably the site of the altars dedicated by Solomon to Chemosh (1 Kings 11:7). See Stanley's Sinai and Palestine, 185 ff., 452 ff.

Olivet, vil., Eaton co., Mich., 83 m. s.w. by s. of Saginaw on the Gr. Trunk R. R. It is the seat of Olivet College. The district has dairy and farming interests. Pop. (1904) 776.

Olivetans, a Roman Catholic religious order founded in 1313, an offshoot of the Benedictines,

Olla Podrida

come in 1905 of $46,000. The total value of the property under control of the college is about $400,000. The library contains 31,000 volumes.

Olivier, JUSTE DANIEL (180776), French-Swiss author and poet, born at Eysins (Vaud); was occupied from 1845-71 in teaching in Paris, where Sainte-Beuve was his intimate friend. In 1871 he returned to Switzerland. He became widely known through his poem Les Chansons lointaines (1847), and through his novels. A selection of his works, with memoir by Rambert, appeared at

Boston on its evacuation by the British in 1776, and resided in England until his death.

Olives, MOUNT OF, or OLIVET (Zech. 14:4; Matt. 21:1, etc.; Acts 1:12; mount of corruption, 2 Kings 23:13), a rising ground to the E. of Jerusalem, over against the Temple hill, and separated from it by the Kidron valley; now called Jebel-et-Tur (2,700 ft.). At its summit is the Church of the Ascension; on its w. slope Gethsemane. The name is also used of the whole ridge which runs parallel to the E. spur of Jerusalem, including the Scopus or 'Prospect,' N.E. of the Temple; the 'Prophets' (so called from the tombs found there), a s. extension of Olivet proper; and the Mount of Offence

Mount Olivet.

but following a severer rule. Their founder, Giovanni de' Tolonei, once a professor of philosophy at Siena, was appointed the first general in 1319. The order possesses about twelve houses.

Olivet College, a non- sectarian co-educational institution at Olivet, Mich., founded by a colony from Oberlin, Ohio, under Rev. John J. Shipherd, founder of Oberlin College and school. It was established in 1844, but the college charter was not obtained until 1859. The institution has preparatory, collegiate, art and music departments with a total enrolment in 1906 of 294 students and 29 instructors. It has grounds and buildings valued at $201,500, an endowment of $140,000, with an in

Lausanne in 1879. See Berthoud's Juste Olivier (1880).

=

Olivine (FeMg)2SiO4, a ferrous and magnesium orthosilicate, and a very common mineral of igneous rocks, crystallizes in small, olivegreen, rhombic prisms (h. 6.5, sp. gr. 3.4). Large specimens are obtained from the East and from Brazil, and are cut as gems under the name of peridote; but they are rare. Olivine occurs also in grains in many meteorites. Many lavas are rich in olivine (especially the basalts), and some plutonic rocks, such as peridotite and dunite, consist largely of this mineral. Olivine weathers readily to serpentine, being the first one to decay in most basic lavas.

Olla Podrida, or OLLA ESPAÑOLA, a Spanish dish consisting

Ollivier

of an indefinite number of varieties of fish, meat, poultry, and vegetables, the whole being highly spiced with pepper, garlic, and other flavorings, and stewed with a little water. The name is used figuratively in the same sense as pot-pourri, to designate a medley.

Ollivier, OLIVIER EMILE (1825), French statesman, born at Marseilles; practised at the bar, served in the Legislative Assembly, and, as the head of the ministry of 1870, he entered 'with a light heart' upon the FrancoGerman War, whose first disasters brought about his Own fall. Among his works are Démocratie et Liberté (1867), Principes et Conduite (1875), M. Thiers a l'Académie et dans l'Histoire (1888), Solutions Politiques et Sociales (1894) and L'empire Libéral (1894-98). See Marcas's Emile Ollivier (1865).

Olmsted, FREDERICK LAW (1822-1903), American landscape architect. He was born at Hartford, Conn., and having some experience of the conditions of American agriculture, he increased his knowledge by a tour on foot in Great Britain, with a short visit to the Continent, and published Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England (1852). Returning to America he made several journeys in the South, of which the results were embodied in A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States (1856), A Journey in the Back Country (1860), and The Cotton Kingdom (1861). During the Civil War he served as secretary of the sanitary commission. In 1857 the plan offered by Olmsted and Vaux for laying out Central Park, New York city, was accepted, and with the completion of that great piece of work Olmsted was recognized as the foremost landscape architect in the country. After that time he was connected, either as directing head or consulting expert, with the laying out of many of the great city parks in this country, as, for instance the Back Bay Park, Boston, and Jackson Park, Chicago, included in the World's Fair of 1893, and afterward one of the most beautiful parks of the park system of the city.

Olmsted, FREDERICK LAW, JR. (1870), American landscape architect, born on Staten Island, N. Y., and graduated from Harvard University in 1894. He studied under his father, and in 1898 became landscape architect of Boston's park system. In 1903 he was appointed professor of landscape architecture at Harvard. Among his works have been the Biltmore estate of George W. Vanderbilt in North Carolina, and improvements in the city of Washington. He has served as a

57

member of the commission appointed, to prepare plans for the permanent improvement of that city along determined lines.

see

Ölmütz, in. and archiepiscopal

(1777), Moravia, Austria, on an isl. in the March R.; was a fortress until 1886. It has interesting churches, and a university founded in 1581 (suppressed in 1855, with the exception of the theological faculty). It

manu

factures malt, beer, sugar, starch, and alcohol. Lafayette was imprisoned here in 1794, and Ferdinand I. here resigned the crown to his nephew in 1848. Pop. (1900) 21,933.

Olney, city, Ill., co. seat of Richland co., 63 m. s.w. by s. of Terre Haute, Ind., on the B. and O. S. W., the Cin., Ham. and Dayt., and the Ill. Cent. R. Rs. It is a residential and commercial centre, shipping grass seed especially to Germany. Fruit and poultry are extensively raised. It has foundries and machine shops, railroad repair shops, and manufactures flour and furniture. The city possesses a public library and Greenlaw's Sanitarium. There is a city park of 56 acres. Olney was laid out in 1841 and incorporated in 1867. Pop. (1900) 4,260.

Olney, tn., Buckinghamshire, England, on the Ouse, 12 m. from Bedford. The church dates from the 14th century. The poet Cowper resided here nearly twenty years. Pop. of par. (1901) 2,684.

Olney, JESSE (1798-1872), American educational writer, was born at Union, Conn., and after some experience as a teacher in New York state, became, in 1819, principal of the Stone school in Hartford, Conn. While thus occupied he developed a system of teaching geography, leading the scholars from consideration of his own locality to observation of more distant places and coun tries, reversing the customary method. His A Geography and Atlas, based on this theory of teaching, was published in 1828, and its success led him to resign his position in 1831 and devote himself altogether to educational and other literary work. He was a member of the Conn. legislature for several terms, and also comptroller of the state.

Olney, RICHARD (1835), American politician, born at Oxford, Mass. He graduated at Brown in 1856, and was admitted to the bar in 1859. He began to practise his profession in Boston, where he soon acquired a leading position at the bar. Although always interested in politics as a Democrat, he had held no office, except for one term in the legislature, until he was appointed attorney-general in the cabinet of President Cleveland in 1893. To his advice is generally attributed the inter

Olympia

ference of the Federal government in the railroad strike troubles in Chicago in 1894. This step not only broke the 'strike but established an important political precedent. In 1895 he became secretary of state, and carried to a successful issue the Venezuela controversy with Great Britain. His letter to Secretary Bayard on this subject was a document of great political significance. Olney refused to support Bryan, because of the silver issue, in 1896, but in 1900 he advocated Bryan's election, because of his disapproval of what he considered the imperialistic leanings of the Republican party. In 1897 he returned to the practice of law.

Olonets, gov., N. Russia, extending from Lake Ladoga almost to the White Sea. Area, 57,439 sq. m. Pop. (1897) 366,715. It has a harsh, moist climate, unfavorable to agriculture. The principal industries are the timber trade (over 60 per cent. being under forest) and fishing. Cap. Petrozavodsk.

Olsnitz. See OELSNITZ.

Olt, ALT, or ALUTA, riv. of S.E. Europe, rises in the Carpathian Mts., flows w.s.w. through Transylvania and Roumania, and enters the Danube opposite Nicopolis. Length, 310 m.; drainage area, 9,000 sq. m.

Olympia, religious centre in ancient Greece, consisted of an enclosure two hundred and fifty yards in length by two hundred in width, in which stood a temple of Zeus, others of Hera and of the Mother of the Gods, a shrine of Pelops, the Philippicion a building erected by Philip of Macedon to commemorate his victory at Charonea-a council chamber for the presidents of the games, a colonnade, twelve treasuries in which the various Greek states deposited their offerings, and numberless statues. Outside was a palæstra or wrestling-ground, a covered race-track, and buildings for the use of the competitors in the games, who had to spend the last period of their training at Olympia. In the 6th century A.D. earthquakes threw down the temple of Zeus and other buildings; about the same time a landslip covered some of the buildings. The site was excavated by German scholars between 1874 and 1881. There was found the Hermes of Praxiteles, an almost perfect specimen of one of the greatest Greek sculptors. The OLYMPIC GAMES existed from immemorial antiquity. In the 9th century B.C. Iphitus of Elis is said to have reorganized the games, establishing peace between all Greek states during the festival. The traditional list of victors began in 776 B.C. The games were held every four years, at the first full

Olympia

moon after the summer solstice. The festival lasted five days. The earliest and most important contest was the stadion, or short foot race of about 200 yards; this was the only event from 776 to 728. There were later introduced at different intervals the diaulos, or race of twice the length of the stadion; the long race of twenty-four stadia; wrestling; the pentathlum, or allround contest in running, leaping, throwing the quoit, the javelin, and wrestling; boxing, the pancratium; the chariot race for four horses; the horse race; boys' contests in running, wrestling, and boxing; the foot race in heavy armor; the chariot race for two horses; chariot races for two and for four foals; contests for heralds and trumpeters; a foal race; and a boys' pancratium. Only freeborn Greeks were allowed to compete. The prizes-wreaths from the sacred olive supposed to have been planted by Herculeswere presented to all the victors at the conclusion of the contests. Though the value of the prize was nothing in itself, the glory of an Olympic victory was so great that a victor obtained from his city a substantial reward in money and other privileges. The games died out during the 4th century A.D. Modern revivals of the Olymphian games, in which contestants from almost all of the civilized world took part, were held in Athens in 1896 (in the ancient stadium, specially prepared for the purpose), at Paris in 1900, at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904, and at Athens in 1906. With a few exceptions these contests were modern in character and not true revivals of the ancient sports. (See TRACK AND FIELD ATHLETICS.) See E. Curtius and Adler's Ausgrabungen zu Olympia (1877–8); Die Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen (1891-7); Bötticher's Olympia (1882).

S.

Olympia, city, Wash., cap. of the state, and co. seat of Thurston co., at the head of Puget Sound, 27 m. s.w. of Tacoma, on the N. Pac. and the Port Towns. R. Rs. The state capitol is a fine structure of sandstone, situated in a park. The business section is substantially built of brick and stone, and the residential quarter is laid out with shade trees and gardens. The leading industries are the manufacture of planingmill products, mill machinery, engines, boilers, brass castings, steam fittings, etc. The oyster and clam industry is important, as also are dairying and fruit raising. Olympia was settled in 1846, laid out in 1851, and became a city in 1859. Pop. (1900) 3,863.

Olympiad, the period of four years which elapsed between celebrations of the Olympic games

58

became the most general method of reckoning time among the ancient Greeks after its introduction by the historian Timæus, who flourished about 265 B.C. The Olympiads were calculated from the victory of Corcbus in 776 B.C. To determine the date of any Olympiad according to the Christian era, it is necessary to subtract one from the number of the Olympiad, then multiply it by four, and subtract the result from 776, if it is less than 776that gives the date B.C.; if the number is greater than 776, 776 must be subtracted from it, and the result is the date A.D. As the Olympic festival fell in June, events of the first half of any year fall a year later by our chronology than the date given by the process of calculation given above.

Olympias, was the wife of Philip II., king of Macedonia, and the mother of Alexander the Great. When in 337 B.C. Philip put her away and married Cleopatra, the niece of Attalus, she left Macedonia in anger, and is believed to have aided the assassination of the king in 336 B.C. After Alexander's death she took part in the struggles for supreme power. In 317 she assumed the Sovereignty of Macedonia; but Cassander made war on her, and put her to death in 316 B.C.

Olympiodorus, a Neo-Platonist of Alexandria, who flourished early in the 6th century A.D. He left a Life of Plato (Eng. trans. by Etwall in 1771), and commentaries on the Gorgias, Phædo, Philebus, and Alcibiades I., of Plato.

Olympus, a mountain range in ancient Greece, divided Thessaly from Macedonia. Its greatest height is about 9,700 ft., perpetually snowclad Greek mythology regarded it as the abode of the gods.

Olynthus, a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, in the Chalcidice, to the s. of Macedonia, at the head of the Toronaic Gulf. During the 5th century B.C. it was allied to Athens; after the downfall of Athens in 404 B.C. it headed a confederacy of Greek cities, until it was destroyed by Philip in 347 B.C.

Olyphant, bor., Lackawanna co., Pa., 5 m. N.N.E. of Scranton, on a branch of the Susquehanna R., and on the Del. and Hud., the D. L. and W., and the N. Y., Ont. and W. R. Rs. It is a coal mining centre, and large shipments of anthracite are made. Silk weaving is carried on. The electric lighting plant is owned and operated by the borough. It was settled in 1857 and incorporated in 1877. Pop. (1900) 6,180.

Om, a Sanskrit word equivalent to Amen, implying a solemn affirmation or assent, and the word by which the gods signified their acceptance of a sacrifice. In the study of the Veda, the teacher

Omaha

begins his lesson and the pupil finishes it with om. The Buddhists have a sacred apothegm, Om mani padme hum ("O the jewel in the Lotus, Amen').

Omaguas, a people of E. Peru, descendants of the Anahuacas, whose reputed capital was El Dorado. Now their territory is confined to the left bank of the Marañon as far as the Itaya confluence. They are greatly reduced in numbers, although the Omagua language, a member of the TupiGuarani family, still ranges over a wide area. See Paul Marcoy, Voyage à travers l'Amérique du Sud; Brinton, The American Race (1901).

Omaha, city, Neb., co. seat of Douglas co. and the commercial and industrial metropolis of the state, 430 m. w. by s. of Chicago (492 m. by rail), on the Missouri R. 600 m. above the Mississippi, and on the Chi., Burl. and Quin., the Chi., Rock I. and Pac., the Mo. Pac., the N. Pac., and five other railroads. It is situated on high ground, rising from the w. bank of the river which the business section adjoins, and has an average altitude of about 1,000 ft. above sea level. Among the most conspicuous features of the city are the three great bridges which span the river to Council Bluffs, Ia. It is the seat of the State Deaf and Dumb Institute, Creighton University (R. C.), Creighton Medical College, Omaha Medical College, Presbyterian Theological Seminary, the Nebraska College of pharmacy, and several academies. Omaha is the headquarters of the Missouri Military Department. The philanthropic institutions include the Clarkson Memorial Hospital, County Hospital, Saint Joseph's Hospital, Immanuel Orphan Home, Convent of Mercy, the Catholic Orphan Asylum, and the Presbyterian and Methodist hospitals. Noteworthy buildings are the Federal building, which was erected at a cost of $1,845,000, and is an imposing structure in Romanesque style, the Coliseum with a seating capacity of 12,000, the high school, having a lofty tower, the new high school, county court house, city hall, exposition building, Burlington Railway station, the Board of Trade, the Omaha Club, and Boyd's Theatre. Among the churches the Episcopal and Catholic cathedrals are especially fine; and among the business buildings the more conspicuous include the Omaha Bee Building, the New York Life Insurance Building, and the Paxton Block. The more important parks are Hanscom, Riverview, Elmwood, Fontenelle, Bemis, and Miller parks, and Jefferson Square, having an aggregate area of about 600 acres.

Omaha is known as the 'Gate

Omahas

City,' a name of especial significance in view of the great territory to the w. of which it is the chief market and railroad centre. Immense quantities of corn, wheat, and oats are handled by the elevators, and cattle, hogs, lumber, etc., shipped, while dry goods, groceries, and other commodities are distributed in proportionate quantities. According to the census of 1900 there were 838 industrial establishments, employing $34,478,014 capital, with an output vauled at $43,168,876. The value of the malt liquors was $1,029,500. Other important articles of manufacture are saddlery and harness, brick and tile, clothing, confectionery, flour, foundry and machine shop products, fur goods, furniture, ornamental ironwork, millinery, patent medicines, white lead, linseed oil, and tobacco and cigars. The smelters annually reduce many million dollars worth of silver, gold, lead, and copper. The slaughtering and meat-packing houses in the adjoining city of South Omaha are only surpassed in size by those of Chicago and Kansas City. Railroad shops of the Union Pacific Railroad employ over 1,000 hands.

The site of Omaha was visited by Lewis and Clark in 1804, and a trading post, established in 1825, was continued for a few years; but the first regular settlement was made in 1854, when title to the land was formally granted in a treaty by the Indians. The place was named after the tribe of Omahas. From this time until the admission of Nebraska to the Union in 1867, the city was the capital of the territory. The discovery of gold in the territory beyond the limits of the present state was a stimulus to the city's growth, but more important still was the location here of the starting point for the Pacific Railroad. The Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition was held here in 1898. Pop. (1860) 1,883; (1880) 30,518; (1900) 102,555; est. (1904) 116,963. See Sorensen, Early History of Omaha (1876); Savage and Bell, History of the City of Omaha (1894).

Omahas, N. American Indians, a branch of the Siouan or Dakotan family, but not members of the Dakotan alliance, with which they were often at war. They originally ranged on both sides of the Mississippi in the present district of St. Louis, whence they migrated at an early date to the Lower Platte river and the Elkhorn valley, Nebraska. Total number (1900) about 1,200. See

O. Dorsey, Omaha Sociology (1885).

Omaha, University of. A Presbyterian institution of learn

60

the

ing for both sexes at Bellevue, Nebraska, founded in 1880 as Bellevue College and incorporated under its present title in 1891, the name Bellevue being retained for the collegiate department. The university at present time consists of the college, dental school, normal school, academy, and school of music and art. The college offers classical,scientific, and philosophical courses, leading to the bachelor's degree in arts, science, and philosophy. The student attendance in 1906 was 138, when the college had a faculty of 22, a library of 5,280 volumes, and property valued at $131,678. The income was $37,697.

O'Mahony, JOHN FRANCIS (1816-77), Irish Fenian agitator, was born in Kilbeheny, co. Cork, Ireland, and studied at Trinity College, Dublin. He joined the 'repeal' movement in 1843, being an opposer of English rule in Ireland by inheritance and personal opinion, but holding more radical views than O'Connell and his party, associated himself with the young Ireland' group in 1845. His share in the Irish rebellion of 1848 forced him to seek refuge in France, whence in 1852 he emigrated to the U. S. He settled in New York city, where in 1858 he began the movement which resulted in the organization of the Fenian Brotherhood in 1860, of which he was president for several years, and to which large sums of money were contributed. His last years were passed in poverty, but after his death his body was taken to Ireland and buried with honors in Glasneven cemetery, near Dublin. translaHe published a tion of Geoffrey Keating's Gaelic History of Ireland (1857).

Oman, an Arab sultanate in S.E. Arabia, with a coast-line of about 1,000 m. on the Gulf of Ormuz. In the interior the land rises to a height of 6,000 ft. in Jebel Akhdar. The climate is very hot and dry, and irrigation

is

necessary for agriculture. Oman is under British protection. The value of the foreign commerce, conducted at the capital and port, Maskat, is about $2,994,843, dates being the chief export. Area, 82,000 sq. m.; pop. 1,500,000.

Omar Khayyám, Persian poet, was born about the middle of the 11th century at Nishapur, Khorassan, where he died about 1123. As an astronomer he was responsible for a revision of the Persian calendar, and he occupied a position of importance at the court of the Sultan Malik Shah at Merv. It is as the author of a collection of quatrains, called the Rubáiyát, that Omar Khayyám is more popularly known. These poems

Omen

a

isolated, impulsive, unrestrained, and characterized by rapid transitions from love-minstrelsy to grave argument, and from deadly fatalism to ribald tavern song are an interesting development of Persian mysticism. Like the Song of Solomon, while some interpret them literally, others find in them veiled meanings and a mysterious Sufism. There is little doubt that Omar was not the author of all the poems which inspired his translator, FitzGerald's pen. Fitz-Gerald's translation, first published anonymously in 1859, provoked no enthusiasm, until a sudden realization of its value led to the issue of four other editions before the death of its author in 1883. See reissue of Fitz-Gerald, by Batson and Ross (1900), and Heron-Allen's The Rubáiyát

A Facsimile

of the Manuscript in the Bodleian Library (1898).

was

Af

Omar Pasha (1806-71), Turkish general, whose real name Michael Lattas, deserted from the Austrian army in 1828, went to Turkey, embraced Mohammedanism, and was appointed writingmaster to Abdul Medjid, on whose accession he received important military commands. ter crushing revolts among the Albanians and Kurds, he defeated the Russians in the campaign on the Danube (1853-4), being equally successful in the Crimea (1855). After two years of disfavor and banishment (1859-61), he returned to fight successfully against Montenegro (1862), but failed to crush the rebellion in Crete (1867). He was minister of war (1868-9).

Omdurman, tn. on 1. bk. of Nile, Egyptian Sudan, opposite Khartum, was the Dervish capital. Here, on Sept. 2, 1898, the Anglo-Egyptian troops, under Lord (then Maj. Gen.) Kitchener, defeated the Dervishes, which completely broke the Mahdi's power. Pop. 48,000.

O'Meara, BARRY EDWARD (1786-1836), Irish physician, who served as medical officer in the army, and subsequently on board the Bellerophon. He sailed to St. Helena with Napoleon, in whose dissensions with the governor, Sir Hudson Lowe, he took a vigorous part, and in 1818 was dismissed from his post in consequence. His attacks on Lowe's reputation appear in his Napoleon in Exile (1822).

Omen, an event which is supposed to foretell future happenings. From the earliest times a belief in 'signs' as the forerunners of great events has been almost universal, especially in regard to the important events of life-birth, marriage, death. Good or bad fortune is foretold by all manner of trivial events, such as