Orestes

gold has been introduced after the deposition of the strata by the action of percolating waters. The 'silver sandstone' of Utah is in every way similar. Igneous rocks also-such as granite, diabase, and dolerite-may carry ores of gold, platinum, copper, nickel, etc., throughout their whole mass. Sometimes these are secondary, or introduced

by

the action of water, as in the copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior, which are vesicular lavas with their steam cavities occupied by copper and other minerals. In other cases they are apparently primary, as in the platiniferous basic rocks of the Urals and New Zealand. When primary, the ores are often segregations which have proved insoluble, and have separated out from the molten rock at some period during consolidation. Many masses of iron ore in Scandinavia and Finland are regarded as being of this nature. Chrome-iron oxide frequently occurs in the same way in serpentine. The nickel deposits of Sudbury in Canada belong to this group. Tin ores may sometimes impregnate masses of granite or slate, forming large, irregular bodies of mineralized rock known as 'stockworks.' In beds of limestone ores of lead, iron, and zinc are frequently found filling great spaces or chambers, which seem to have originated from the solvent action of water, which at the same time deposited metallic minerals. This kind of replacement of one rock by another is known as 'metasomatism.'

or

Of great importance to miners are the alluvial deposits placers, which have yielded gold, tin, and other ores. The heavier

and less perishable ores are those which occur most frequently in this way, as the running water washes away the lighter sand and gravel and leaves the ores in the irregularities of its channel. See METALLURGY, and articles on the individual metals; also Phillips's Ore Deposits (enlarged ed. 1896), and Kemp's Ore Deposits of the United States (1893); Ries's Economic Geology of the United States (1905); and many Reports and Monographs of the U. s. Geol. Survey.

Orestes, in ancient Greek legend, the son of Agamemnon and Clyætmnestra. When Ægisthus and Clytemnestra tried to kill him, his sister Electra saved him and sent him to Strophius, king of Phocis. There he formed a close friendship with Pylades, the king's son. Having attained

to manhood he returned to Argos, by the command of Apollo, and revenged his father's death by killing both Ægisthus and Clytemnestra; but for slaying his mother the Furies afflicted

him with madness. By Apollo's advice he took refuge in the temple of Athena at Athens, and was tried by the court of the Areopagus, which acquitted him. According to another story, his madness could only be cured by his carrying away a statue of Artemis from the Tauric Chersonese. Accordingly he and Pylades went thither, and found that the priestess of Artemis was Orestes's sister Iphigenia. She escaped with Orestes and Pylades to Argos. There Orestes took possession of his father's kingdom, and married Hermione, daughter of Menelaus; Pylades married Electra. The story is told in the Choephora and Eumenides of Eschylus, the Electra of Sophocles, the Electra, Orestes, and Iphigenia in Tauris of Euripides.

Orfila, MATTHIEU JOSEPH BONAVENTURE (1787-1853), French physician and chemist, was born at Port Mahon in Minorca, and in 1819 was appointed professor of medical jurisprudence at Paris, and in 1823 of juridical chemistry, which post he held for twenty-five years. Among his chief works are Traité des Poisons (1813-15), Traité de Toxicologie (1852), Leçons de Médecine Legale (1821-3), and (with Lisueur) Traité des Exhumations Juridiques (1830). He was the principal founder of the anatomical museum in Paris called the Musée Orfila.

Orford, EDWARD RUSSELL, EARL OF (1653-1727), English admiral, a nephew of William Russell, first Duke of Bedford, served in the third Dutch War (1672), and was appointed treasurer of the navy in 1689. In 1692 he fought the French off Cape Barfleur, and, following them to Cape La Hogue, destroyed most of their ships. He was first Lord of the Admiralty (1694-9), again in 1709-10 and 1714. He was created Earl of Orford in 1697. Orford, LORD. See WALPOLE. Organ, a musical instrument of great antiquity. Before the middle of the 5th century it is said to have been in common use in the churches of Spain, and during the latter half of the 7th century it was introduced into the church at Rome by Pope Vitalian. Although builders of the instrument flourished in Italy, France, Germany, and England before the end of the 9th century, it was not until the 15th century that the organ began to assume the proportions and develop those characteristics which have made it an instrument unequalled for volume, variety, and grandeur of tone. During the Puritan period nearly all the organs in the churches of England were destroyed; but after the restora

The

The modern organ is a keyboard wind instrument, its sounds being produced from pipes acted upon by a current of air. wind is supplied by bellows (often blown by some form of engine) or by fans-singly or in seriesdriven by gas, gasoline, or electric, motors and conveyed by windtrunks to a wind-chest, constructed in such a manner and having its pipes so arranged that the compressed air can be admitted to any pipe or pipes at the will of the performer. What is termed an individual organ comprises several sections, each provided with a wind-chest, and forming a practically complete instrument in itself. The sections themselves do not require to be placed in actual juxtaposition; but their claviers, or keyboards, are always enclosed in one case, or 'console,' which is sometimes duplicated in a distant part of the building, Portable consoles are frequently adjusted to organs having electric action. The claviers manipulated by the fingers are called manuals, and these are placed one above another, the upper receding from the lower somewhat after the manner of steps in a stair. Another clavier, placed underneath the manuals so that the performer can work it with his feet, is termed a pedal, and it manipulates a section called the pedal organ. In large organs, besides the pedal organ there are usually three cther sections called the great, choir, and swell organs, and frequently a solo organ, while in exceptional cases there is a fifth section called the echo organ. The swell organ was introduced by Jordan (1712) in London, England, and has its pipes enclosed in a kind of box having its front composed of shutters overlapping each other-somewhat resembling those of a Venetian blind. The shutters are opened by means of a pedal, and thus a crescendo effect can be produced at will. Frequently the choir organ is enclosed in another swell box with a portion of the great organ, while a third swell box is employed for the solo organ. The sections of an organ vary considerably in their relative dimensions, and their number is usually determined by the size of

Organ

the instrument. The famous organ in the church of St. Sulpice at Paris has five manuals, and contains 100 speaking stops and about 7,000 pipes.

occa

In order to obtain the desired tonal characteristics, organ pipes are made in various forms and proportions, of several kinds of wood, of different sorts and combinations of metal, and sionally also of paper or cardboard. On the Continent cylindrical wooden pipes are used with good results, but elsewhere nearly all pipes are square. Square pipes produce a broad, full tone; narrow but deep pipes yield a softer and sweeter tone; and shallow but wide pipes give a Wooden powerful, hollow tone.

pipes may also be in the form of a pyramid, or of an inverted pyramid. In either case variation in the degree of taper has the effect or producing certain distinctive qualities of tone. Metal pipes

are always round, and may be cylindrical the whole length of the pipe, or conical, or in the form of an inverted cone, and either of the conical forms may be surmounted by a bell. When the diameter of a pipe is made small in proportion to its length, the tone produced is of a soft quality, and vice versa. The largest pipe in ordinary use in the organ is 32 ft. long, and the smallest in. A 64 ft. pedal is now occasionally employed, as we shall mention below.

All organ pipes, of whatever form or material, are, by reason of the methods adopted for setting in vibration their column of air, divided into two great classes, termed flue-pipes and reed-pipes. A metal flue-pipe is made to sound by a strong current of air impinging upon the upper edge of an oblong orifice cut transversely at the junction of the body of the pipe with its foot, which latter is in the form of an inverted cone, and has an aperture at its point for the admission of air. Internally, and at this junction, a metal plate called the language, is fixed across the pipe. This plate has a small slice cut transversely from the part next to the orifice; thus a space is formed-termed' a windway-through which the compressed air rushes from the foot of the pipe. Wooden flue-pipes sometimes have a languid made of wood, but more frequently a block and bevelled cap are used. An ordinary tin whistle may be instanced as a form of flue-pipe. Reed-pipes were not used in organs till the 15th century, and their arrangements for tone production differ considerably from those in flue-pipes. The organ reed is a small metal tube-usu

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ally brass--open at the upper and closed at the lower end, which is bevelled upwards towards the back. A longitudinal slot extending the whole length of the tube is formed in its longest surface, and fixed to its upper end there is a thin strip of brass or other elastic metal, called the tongue, which is sufficiently large to overlap the slot. The lowest section of a reedpipe is termed the boot; fitted into the upper part of this there is a piece of metal called the block, which is solid, with the exception of two perforations running longitudinally through it. The larger opening contains the reed, which is held in position by a wedge inserted at its upper end; thus the reed hangs from the block into the boot. The smaller opening in the block has a wire through it, the lower part of which is bent at right angles, and adjusted so that it goes across and presses against the outer surface of the tongue; the upper part of the wire projects outside the pipe, and by raising or depressing this wire the length of the vibrating tongue is regulated and the pitch determined. The lower end of the tongue being slightly curved away from the reed, the air is thus allowed to rush through the tube, and in doing so causes the tongue to vibrate and beat against the reed. This form is termed an It is almost univeropen reed. sally used when light wind presWhere sure only is available. heavy wind can be employed the best voicers use what are called 'close' reeds. In this case the slot does not continue to the top of the tube, and the tongues are both shorter and thicker, and loaded with small weights; the tone produced is firmer and smoother. In the 'free' reed the tongue vibrates in the slot without coming into contact with the brass. Fluepipes may be open, stopped, or half-stopped, or may have perforations in their tubes-as may also some reed-pipes-in order to produce certain qualities of tone. A stopped pipe has its upper end covered with a cap, or has a plug inserted; and if made a little greater in diameter, its pitch is an octave below that of an open pipe of the same length. Half stopped pipes have a hole drilled through the plug, and if a small tube is inserted the pipe is said to be chimneyed.

Apart from the pipes known as diapasons, whose tone quality is peculiar to the organ, much of the variety of tone is attributable to the employment of sets of pipes voiced so as to resemble more or less such orchestral instruments as flute, piccolo, clarionet, oboe, bassoon, trumpet, trombone, and tuba. These sets of pipes are termed stops or regis

Organ

ters, and particular stops are assigned to certain departments of the organ. The pedal has the largest number of deep-toned pipes. The great contains the majority of the diapasons and other stops of pure foundation tone, and is generally the most powerful department. To the

choir are assigned registers of a lighter character suitable for accompanimental purposes, and to the swell the preponderance of brilliant chorus reeds. The solo department generally includes such imitative registers as viola, flute, oboe, clarionet, cor anglais, and tuba. These are frequently used with a higher pressure of wind. The sets of pipes in any division of the organ are not all of the same pitch; pipes sounding pitches that differ from, but are consonant with, the fundamental tone are also used; but the most important and usually most numerous stops on the manuals are those which have their largest pipes 8 ft. in length: these are termed chief foundation stops. The other stops, composed of pipes producing sounds that differ in pitch from those of the foundation stops, are dependent upon the acoustic laws which govern the production of compound musical sounds. The intervals most frequently used are replicas of the fifth or octave of the foundation tone; the third is less commonly used. Cavaillé-Coll has occasionally included the minor seventh in his tonal schemes. The intervals above the fundamental tone which have separate stops are the octave (4 ft.), the superoctave (2 ft.), the twelfth (23 ft.), and occasionally the quint (5 ft.). The other harmonic intervals are generally included in stops composed of several rows or ranks of pipes termed 'mixtures,' which are tuned to the upper partials of the fundamental tone.

Most organs contain in the manuals softer stops sounding an octave below the 8-feet foundation work: these are called 'doubles.' On the pedal organ the foundation pitch is 16 ft. and that of the 'double' 32 ft. In exceptional cases a stop of 64-ft. pitch has been introduced, examples of which are to be found at Sydney Town Hall, Australia, at Worcester Cathedral, and the Colston Hall, Bristol, England. Organ pipes vary in their arrangement, but they are usually set in rows in what are called windchests or sound-boards. The draw-stops (or stop keys) of an organ enable the performer to control the supply of wind to the various stops, so that their pipes may sound or be silent at will. Couplers unite two manuals together, and pedal couplers enable the lower part of the manuals to be

Organ

played from the pedals when required.

The compass of the manuals is usually CC to C, 61 notes. The pedal compass is mostly CCC to F, 30 notes; but where the manuals are extended to C, it is usual to extend the pedals to G, 32 notes.

The most characteristic features of the modern organ first appear about the middle of last century. Previous to that Bishop had invented composition pedals for controlling the stops; Barker, the pneumatic lever for lightening the 'touch'; Cavaillé-Coll, the harmonic system of flue-pipe voicing; and Hill, the tuba mirabilis, a powerful harmonic reed stop voiced on heavy wind pressure. It is, however, primarily to Henry Willis that we owe that Renaissance of organ - building which has taken place in Englishspeaking countries during the last half-century. By means of heavier wind pressure, which Barker's pneumatic lever enabled him to use, he succeeded in imparting a brilliancy and evenness of tone (particularly in the reed department) never before attained. The famous organ in St. George's Hall, Liverpool, England, built by Willis in 1855, even now holds its own. Willis also introduced combination pistons, and (in conjunction with S. S. Wesley) the concave and radiating pedal board, which form was adopted by the Royal College of Organists of London in 1904 for their college organ, and is now in general use in this country as well as England. Henry Willis's career fitly closed with the reconstruction in 1899 of the organ in St. Paul's Cathedral, which for tonal qualities is probably unequalled by any other cathedral organ in the world. Among other foreign builders who have advanced the art of organbuilding in modern times may be mentioned Cavaillé-Coll of Paris, whose reeds were unsurpassed, Edmond Schulze, T. C. Lewis, and William Hill, all of whom devoted their attention to the improvement and development of pure diapason tone. Walker and Sons have made a feature of large-scaled, smooth, full-toned diapasons and flutes, while Thynne introduced a new variety of string-toned stops and other registers of great beauty. Gern and Willis were the pioneers of the early form of tubular pneumatic action, and electro-pneumatic action was introduced by Bryceson in the early sixties. Little practical use was made of it till 1886, when Willis employed it successfully at Canterbury Cathedral, whilst Lewis Hill and others adopted it to a limited extent. About 1890 Hope Jones reintroduced it in a somewhat novel form, and his system has been

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simplified and extensive y used up the present time. Adjustable pistons, invented by Roosevelt in 1886, marked an important advance in the principle of organ control. Other American organbuilders have been keen in devising improvements in all the mechanical branches. At the present time nearly all of them construct all of the various types of 'actions,' electric, tubular, and tracker. For a list and description of famous organs, see Grove's Dictionary of Music; Hopkins and Rimbault's The Organ, its History and Construction (1855; new ed. 1877); Eliston's Organs and Tuning (3d ed. 1898); Robertson's Organ Building (1897); and Audsley, The Art of Organ Building (1900); Hinton's Organ Construction (1900).

Organ bird, a bird whose piping notes suggest those from organ-pipes. A wren of the Amazon valley (Cyphorhinues cantans) is so called; and also the piping crow of Tasmania.

Organic Chemistry, a term formerly applied to the study of the products of animal and vegetable organisms, but now used as the title of that branch of chemistry which deals with the compounds of carbon and hydrogen, and their derivatives containing other elements-notably oxygen, nitrogen, and the halogens. This division of the subject is probably of greater scope than all the other branches of the science combined, owing to the power that the carbon atom possesses of - uniting with other carbon atoms in long strings or chains. As such chains may branch, form closed rings, or combinations of all three arrangements to almost any extent, and as the number of side groups of different elements is very large, the number of possible carbon compounds is almost infinite. Organic chemistry requires therefore to be studied in rather a different way from inorganic chemistry. The problem of most importance is the determination of the structure of each compound, not only as regards the number of the atoms to the molecule (which is usually as much as can be attained in inorganic chemistry), but also as regards their relative position. The representation of these relations by 'structural formula' on a plane we owe largely to Kekulé and Couper; and though it has proved of immense service to the science, it is insufficient to explain the relationship between certain classes of isomerides, which require formulæ occupying three dimensions to demonstrate their differences. These stereo-formulæ we owe to Van't Hoff.

The two main divisions of the subject are those comprised in

Oriental Society

the chemistry of the fatty or aliphatic and of the aromatic series of compounds; in the former the open chain hydrocarbons, the paraffines of general formula CnH2n+2, are the parent substances, while the corresponding position in the latter is occupied by the ring compound benzine, CeHe, and its homologues. Unsaturated compounds and ring compounds of other dimensions form minor divisions, all of which are closely interconnected. The standard work is Beilstein's Handbuch der Organischen Chemie (1892); Richter's Chemistry of the Carbon Compounds (Eng. trans. 1887-1900) is a satisfactory smaller treatise; Remsen's Introd. to the Study of Compounds of Carbon (1885; 4th ed. 1903) puts the main features very clearly for beginners.

Organic Rocks, a group of rocks of organic origin for which the term biogenic has been proposed by A. W. Grabau. They are both of plant and animal origin and include shell limestone, chalk, marl, siliceous sinter, peat, coal, diatomaceous earth, etc. See Rocks, classification.

Organism. See BIOLOGY.

Organisms, characteristics of a living animal or plant. See BI

OLOGY.

Organs of the Animal Body, ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF. See BIOLOGY, BODY-MAKING.

Orgyeëv, tn., Bessarabia gov., S. W. Russia, 27 m. N. of Kishinev. It has tanneries, brick works, lime kilns, dye works, and manufactories of tobacco and candles. Pop. (1897) 13,356.

Oribasius (c. 326-403), Greek physician, was a native of Sardis or Pergamus, and became medical attendant to the Emperor Julian and in 361 quæstor of Constantinople; he was temporarily banished by Valentinian and Valens. He compiled Synagogæ Iiatrica (ed. 1852-76) from Galen and others, and was the first to describe the salivary glands.

Oriel, an antechamber, penthouse, porch, gatehouse, or lofty gallery for minstrels, dating from the 13th century. 'The origin of the oriel window was a recess for the altar of an oratory, corbelled out from the face of the wall to give more space, as at Prudhoe Castle' (Northumberland). Built over gateways for defensive purposes, it became characteristic of Tudor and domestic and collegiate Gothic architecture. A bay window is an oriel window on the ground floor.

Oriental Society, AMERICAN, a learned body established in 1842 for the promotion of Oriental studies. It holds annual meetings, every third meeting being held in Boston, and publishes an annual Journal and Transactions. The

Orientation

library of the society is deposited in the Yale Library and numbers about 5,000 volumes in various departments of Oriental research. From the constitution of the membership of 350, largely college instructors, the work of the society has been mainly on the lines of Sanskrit and Assyrian research. Secretary, Prof. E. Washburn Hopkins, Yale University.

Orientation, the turning towards the East, or Orient; the position of worshippers facing towards the East, or in Christian worship towards the eastern end of the church; also the position in which a corpse is laid in the ground, with the head to the west and the feet to the east. The practice of orientation is of prehistoric antiquity, and no doubt arose from pagan worship of the rising sun.

Origanum. See MARJORAM. Origen, surnamed ADAMANTIUS (c. 185-254), one of the greatest of the early church fathers, was born probably at Alexandria. He was teacher in the catechetical school until 232. A keen student of Greek philosophy, he appears to have been the pupil of Ammonius Saccas, the founder of Neo-Platonism.

He

applied himself also to Scriptural exegesis, in which he excelled as a teacher. His literary labors extended to textual criticism, dogmatic exegesis, and apologetics. About 230 Alexander of Jerusalem and Theoctistus of Cæsarea in Palestine ordained him a presbyter, and shortly afterwards he settled at Cæsarea, where he taught philosophy and theology for the next twenty years. During the Maximinian persecution he was sheltered by Firmilian, bishop of the Cappadocian Cæsarea; but he was imprisoned and tortured during the Decian persecution (250).

The most important of his writings that survive are the Peri Archon, the first attempt at scientific Christian dogmatics; a few Homilies; parts of Commentaries on Matthew, John, and Romans; the great apologetic treatise Against Celsus; parts of the monumental Hexapla, in I which he laid the foundation of the textual criticism of the sacred writings (edited by Field, 2 vols. 1867-74). Origen's theological system is a philosophy of revelation based upon the principle that all elements of truth in Greek metaphysics are embraced and completed in Scripture, which, as the sole source of Christian dogma, admits of a threefold interpretation (literal, moral, and spiritual), corresponding to the tripartite nature of man. While it is enough for salvation to accept the teaching of the church, as transmitted by

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the apostles and embodied in the Scriptures, according to Origen there is a higher stage of Christian life in which there is an idealizing of the historical content of the church's faith. His speculative thought has a certain affinity with Gnostic and NeoPlatonic theories. God alone has essential being, and He is the One in contrast to the Manifold. As the absolutely good, He reveals Himself through the Logos. In the incarnation of the Logos, Origen saw the restoration of the original unity between the divine and the human, and the earnest of the redeification of the entire spiritual world. The best edition of Origen's works is that of the Berlin Academy (1899 sqq.). Translations are in the AnteNicene Fathers, vols. iv. and ix. (1887, 1897). The best monograph is Redepenning's Origenes (2 vols. 1841-6). See also Thomasius's Origenes (1837), Moehler's Patrologie (1840), Freppel's Origène (1868), Pressensé's The Early Years of Christianity (Eng. trans. 1879), Denis's La Philosophie d'Origene (1884), Bigg's The Christian Platonists of Alexandria (1886), Farrar's Lives of the Fathers (1889), Harnack's Hist. of Dogma (1894-9), and Fairweather's Origen and Greek Patristic Theology (1901).

Original Sin, a theological term applied to the radical corruption of human nature, by reason of which man is in himself incapable of, and disinclined to, moral good, this original taint being inherited from Adam as a result of his fall (see FALL); and while it is present in any individual anterior to the exercise of the will, he is yet held responsible for it, and liable to its penalties.

Orihuela, city, prov. Alicante, S.E. Spain, 50 m. s.w. of Alicante. An ancient bishopric, it stands on a plain of surpassing fertility. There are silk and other textile industries. Pop. (1900) 28,530.

Orillia, tn., Simcoe co., Ont., Canada, 63 m. N. of Toronto, on Lake Couchiching, and on the Gr. Trunk R. R. The Can. Pac. is also preparing to enter the town. A strait unites L. Couchiching with the N. end of L. Simcoe. Its fine climate, scenery, and good fishing make it a favorite summer resort. Steamers run to the Muskoka country, famous for its lakes and forests. Orillia has two fine parks, a public library, Y. M. C. A. building, opera house, and a provincial lunatic asylum. A U. S. consul resides here. The manufactures include flour, leather, lumber, paper and paper pulp, carriages, locks, foundry products and wooden

ware.

In the surrounding district dairying and fruit raising,

Oriole

especially of apples, are carried on. The town owns and operates its water-works and electric lighting plants. Champlain passed through Orillia in 1615. It was first settled 1862 and incorporated as a town in 1875. Pop. (1901) 4,907.

Orinoco, riv., S. America, rises on Pic Ferdinand de Lesseps in Sierra Parima, which separates Venezuela from Brazil, and has a length of 1,500 m. Its basin measures 370,000 sq. m. Below Esmeralda the river Cassiquiare branches off to the Upper Negro, a tributary of the Amazons. Lower down the Orinoco is joined by the Atabapo, and thence to the mouth of the Meta it forms the boundary between Colombia and Venezuela. The Guaviare, which enters it a few miles from the Atabapo, is also an important stream (840 m.), flowing from the heart of Colombia, and navigable by boats for half its length. Before receiving the Meta the Orinoco is interrupted by rapids, the most formidable being those at Atures. Other tributaries are the Meta (680 m.) and the Apure on 1. bk., and the Caura and Caroni on r. bk., the last noted for its falls, not far from the mouth. The Orinoco finds its way to the sea through a low-lying, forestclothed delta, 8,500 sq. m. in area. During the dry season the river bed is full of shifting sandbanks, but in the rainy season the stream inundates the adjoining country. Boca Grande is the largest mouth, but the best approach is said to be through the Waima river and the Mora passage.

Oriole. In North America this name is given to the series of beautiful and familiar song-birds of the family Icteridæ, related to the blackbirds, which are distin