attend metropolitan lectures, whilst the other prosecuted the business for their joint benefit. In 1740, Cullen took the degree of M. D., and, settling at Glasgow, he was, in 1746, appointed lecturer on chemistry at the university there. In 1751, he was chosen regius professor of medicine. In 1756, he was invited to take the chemical professorship in the university of Edinburgh. In 1760, he was made lecturer on the materia medica there, and subsequently resigned the chemical chair to his pupil, doctor Black. From 1766 to 1773, he gave, alternately with doctor Gregory, annual courses of lectures on the theory and practice of physic-an arrangement which continued till the death of doctor Gregory, in 1773, left his rival in complete possession of the medical chair. As a lecturer on medicine, doctor Cullen exercised a great influence over the state of opinion relative to the mystery of that science. He successfully combated the specious doctrines of Boerhaave, depending on the humoral pathology; though he has not been equally successful in establishing his own system, which is founded on an enlarged view of the principles of Frederic Hoffmann. His death took place Feb. 5, 1790. His principal works are Lectures on the Materia Medica; Synopsis Nosologiæ Practice; and First Lines of the Practice of Physic, which must be considered as his magnum opus, and which, amidst all the recent fluctuations of opinion on medical theory, has retained its value.

CULLODEN MUIR; a heath in Scotland, 4 miles east of Inverness. It is celebrated for a victory obtained in the year 1746, by the duke of Cumberland, over the partisans of the house of Stuart. The battle of Culloden was the last battle fought on British soil, and the termination of the attempts of the Stuart family to recover the throne of England. (See Edward, Charles, Great Britain, and James III.) The son of James III, Charles Edward, in his daring expedition in 1745, had contended, with various success, against the English, and, indeed, was at one time only about 100 miles from London, where terror and consternation prevailed. But, by a combination of unfavorable circumstances, he was compelled to retreat to Scotland, where fortune again seemed to smile on him at the battle of Falkirk. But the duke of Cumberland, marching against him, baffled the whole enterprise by the decisive victory of Culloden, April 27 (16th, O. S.), 1746. Edward's army was deficient in subordination. Though his

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troops were faint with fatigue and hunger when the battle began, they fought with spirit. The impetuous bravery of the Highlanders, however, at length yielded to the well-served artillery of the English. The victors massacred the wounded Scots on the field of battle. Charles Edward was exposed, in his flight, to a thousand dangers, but at length escaped. His followers suffered the vengeance of the victors. The most distinguished of them died on the scaffold, and the districts which had been the theatre of the rebellion were laid waste. The English government henceforward took measures to prevent the recurrence of similar attempts. Finding that the attachment of the Highlanders to the old royal line arose principally from the peculiarity of their customs and mode of life, they resolved to abolish their institutions. Since that period, the primitive Scottish manners and usages have been continually dwindling away and disappearing.

CULM; a village in Bohemia, 3 leagues east of the well-known watering-place of Teplitz, and near the frontier of Saxony; famous on account of the battle of Aug. 30, 1813, in which the French, under Vandamme, were beaten by the Prussians and Russians. Vandamme was taken prisoner, with 3 generals and 10,000 men. The battle was one of the bloodiest in the whole war. The allies had, a few days previous (Aug. 26), heen repulsed by Napolcon in their attack on Dresden. On the 29th, a bloody battle took place between Vandamme and the allies, who defended the frontiers of Bohemia, to cover the retreat of the Russians. The night put an end to the battle. On the 30th, it was renewed with fury, and ended with the victory of Culm. This victory was decisive; for the allies were enabled to save Bohemia, on which Napoleon was pressing with all his might. A few days before (Aug. 26), on the same day with the battle at Dresden, the French had been beaten by Blücher on the Katzbach; and from this time, the series of disasters is to be dated, which ended with the dethronement of the French emperor.

CULMINATION, in astronomy; the passing of a star through the meridian, because it has at that moment reached the highest point (culmen) of its path, with reference to the observer. Hence culmination is used, metaphorically, for the condition of any person or thing arrived at the most brilliant or important point of its progress.

CUMA, or CYME; the largest and most important city of Æolis (Asia Minor), and,

and, his patron being made lord-lieutenant of Ireland, he accompanied him to that kingdom. When lord Halifax became secretary of state, he procured nothing better for Cumberland than the clerkship of reports in the office of trade and plantations. In the course of the next two or three years, he wrote an opera, entitled the Summer's Tale, and his comedy of the Brothers. His West Indian, which was brought out by Garrick in 1771, proved eminently successful. The Fashionable Lover not obtaining the success of the West Indian, he exhibited that soreness of character which exposed him to the satire of Sheridan, in his sketch of Sir Fretful Plagiary, and which induced Garrick to call him the man without a skin. The Choleric Man, the Note of Hand, and the Battle of Hastings, were his next productions. On the accession of lord George Gerinaine to office, he was made secretary to the board of trade. In 1780, he was employed on a confidential mission to the courts of Lisbon and Madrid, which, owing to some dissatisfaction on the part of the ministry, involved him in great distress, as they withheld the reimbursement of his expenses to the amount of £5000, which rendered it necessary for him to dispose of the whole of his hereditary property. To add to his misfortune, the board of trade was broken up, and he retired with a very inadequate pension, and devoted himself entirely to literature. The first works which he published, after his return from Spain, were his entertaining Anecdotes of Spanish Painters, and the most distinguished of his collection of essays, entitled the Observer. To these may be added the novels of Arundel, Henry, and John de Lancaster, the poem of Calvary, the Exodiad (in conjunction with sir James Bland Burgess), and, lastly, a poem called Retrospection, and the Memoirs of his own Life. He also edited the London Review, in which the critics gave their names, and which soon expired. His latter days were chiefly spent in London, where he died, May 7, 1811. The comic drama was his forte; and, although he wrote much, even of comedy, that was very indifferent, the merit of the West Indian, the Fashionable Lover, the Jew, and the Wheel of Fortune, is of no common description. His Observer, since his acknowledgment of his obligations to doctor Bentley's manuscripts, no longer supports his reputation as a Greek critic; and as a poet, he was never more than a versifier.

CUMBERLAND; a post-town, and capital

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of Alleghany county, Maryland, on the Potomac, at the junction of Will's creek, 70 miles W. Hagerstown, 130 E. S. E. Wheeling, 150 W. by N. Baltimore. It is a considerable town, and contains a courthouse, a jail, a market-house, a bank, and four houses of public worship-one for Lutherans, one for Roman Catholics, one for Methodists, and one built jointly by the Presbyterians and Episcopalians. The mountains in the vicinity abound in stonecoal, great quantities of which are transported down the Potomac in flat and keel boats. The Cumberland or Great Western road extends from this town to the banks of the Ohio at Wheeling. It was made by the government of the U. States, at the expense of $1,800,000; and a survey has been made from thence to the Mississippi, 600 miles farther.

see.

CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS, in TennesThe range commences in the S. W. part of Pennsylvania, and, in Virginia, it takes the name of Laurel mountain, passes through the S. E. part of Kentucky, and terminates in Tennessee, 80 miles S. E. Nashville. A considerable portion of this mountain in Tennessee is composed of stupendous piles of craggy rocks. It is thinly covered with trees, and has springs impregnated with alum. Lime-stone is found on both sides of it.

CUMBERLAND; a river which rises in the Cumberland mountains, Virginia, and runs through Kentucky and Tennessee into the Ohio, 60 miles from the Mississippi. It is navigable for steam-boats to Nashville, near 200 miles, and for boats of 15 tons, 300 miles farther. At certain seasons, vessels of 400 tons may descend 400 miles, to the Ohio.

CUMMAZEE, or COOMASSIE; a town of Africa, capital of Ashantee; 120 miles N.N. W. Cape Coast Castle; lon. 2°6′ W.; lat. 6° 30 N.: population estimated by Mr. Bowdich, in 1818, at 15,000; stated by the inhabitants at 100,000. It is situated in a vale, surrounded by an unbroken mass of the deepest verdure. Four of the principal streets are half a mile long, and from 50 to 100 yards broad. The houses are low and small, of a square or oblong form, composed of canes wattled together, and plastered with clay and sand. The town has considerable trade. The king's harem is said to contain 3333 women!

CUNDINAMARCA; the northern part of New Grenada. It forms a department of the republic of Colombia, and comprehends the provinces of Bogotá, Antioquia, Mariquita and Neiva, with 371,000 inhabitants. The chief place is Santa Fe de Bogotá.

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CUNERSDORF; a village near Frankfort on the Oder, known on account of the bloody battle in which Frederic the Great was defeated, Aug. 12, 1759. It is only about 50 miles distant from Berlin, his capital. Opposed to him were the Russians under Soltikoff, and the Austrians under Laudon. Victory seemed, at first, likely to declare in favor of Frederic, but, eventually, he lost all his artillery and 20,000 men. (See Seven Years' War.) The king at first gave up all hope, but soon recovered his spirits, when Soltikoff, with inconceivable tardiness, neglected to follow up his victory.

CUPEL; a shallow earthen vessel, somewhat resembling a cup, from which it derives its name. It is formed of boneashes, and is extremely porous. It is used in assays, to separate the precious metals from their alloys. The process of cupellation consists in fusing an alloy of a precious metal, along with a quantity of lead, in a cupel. The lead is extremely susceptible of oxidation, and, at the same time, it promotes the oxidation of other metals, and vitrifies with their oxides. The foreign metals are thus removed; the vitrified matter is absorbed by the cupel, or is driven off by the blast of the bellows, as it collects on the surface; and the precious metal at length remains nearly pure.

CUPELLATION. (See Cupel.)

CUPICA; a seaport and bay of Colombia, on the S. E. side of Panama, following the coast of the Pacific ocean, from cape St. Miguel to cape Corrientes. This is thought by Humboldt the most favorable point for connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by a canal. From the bay of Cupica, there is a passage of only 15 or 18 miles, over a country quite level, and suited to a canal, to the head of navigation of the river Naipi, a branch of the river Atrato, which flows into the Atlantic. Gogueneche, a Biscayan pilot, is said to have first pointed out this spot as almost the only place where the chain of the Andes is completely interrupted, and a canal thus made practicable.

CUPID; a celebrated deity among the ancients; the god of love, and love itself. There are different traditions concerning his parents. Cicero mentions three Cupids; one, son of Mercury and Diana; another, son of Mercury and Venus; and the third, son of Mars and Venus. Plato mentions two. Hesiod, the most ancient theogonist, speaks only of one, who, as he says, was produced at the same time as Chaos and the Earth. There are, accord

ing to the more received opinions, two Cupids, one of whom is a lively, ingenious youth, son of Jupiter and Venus, whilst the other, son of Nox and Erebus, is distinguished by his debauchery and riotous disposition. Cupid is represented as a winged infant, naked, armed with a bow, and a quiver full of arrows. On gems and all other antiques, he is represented as amusing himself with some childish diversion. Sometimes he appears driving a hoop, throwing a quoit, playing with a nymph, catching a butterfly, or with a lighted torch in his hand. At other times, he plays upon a horn before his mother, or closely embraces a swan, or, with one foot raised in the air, he, in a musing posture, seems to meditate some trick. Sometimes, like a conqueror, he marches triumphantly, with a helmet on his head, a spear on his shoulder, and a buckler on his arm, intimating that even Mars himself owns the superiority of love. His power was generally shown by his riding on the back of a lion, or on a dolphin, or breaking to pieces the thunder-bolts of Jupiter. Among the ancients, he was worshipped with the same solemnity as his mother, Venus, and his influence was extended over the heavens, the sea, and the earth, and even the empire of the dead. His divinity was universally acknowledged, and vows, prayers and sacrifices were daily offered to him. According to some accounts, the union of Cupid with Chaos gave birth to men, and all the animals which inhabit the earth; and even the gods themselves were the offspring of love, before the foundation of the world. (See Amor.)

CUPOLA (Ital.), in architecture; a hemispherical roof, often used as the summit of a building. The Italian word cupola signifies a hemispherical roof, which covers a circular building, like the Pantheon at Rome, and the round temple at Tivoli. Many of the ancient Roman temples were circular; and the most natural form for a roof for such a building was that of a half globe, or a cup reversed. The invention, or at least the first use, of the cupola belongs to the Romans; and it has never been used with greater effect than by them. The greater part of modern cupolas (unlike those of the ancients, which are mostly hemispherical) are semi-elliptical, cut through their shortest diameter. The ancients seldom had any other opening than a large circle in the centre, called the eye of the cupola; while the moderns elevate lanterns on their top, and perforate them with luthern and dormant win

dows, and other disfigurements. The ancients constructed their cupolas of stone; the moderns, of timber, covered with lead or copper. Of cupolas, the finest, without any comparison, ancient or modern, is that of the Rotundo or Pantheon at Rome. Of modern constructions, some of the handsomest are the cupola on the bank of England, that of St. Peter's at Rome, those of St. Paul's, London, the Hotel des Invalides, and the church of St. Genevieve at Paris, Santa Maria da Fiori at Florence, and St. Sophia at Constantinople.

CURAÇAO; an island in the Caribbean sea, about 75 miles from the continent of South America, belonging to the Netherlands; 30 miles long, and 10 broad; producing sugar and tobacco, also large and small cattle; but not generally fertile. It has several good ports, particularly one on the southern coast, called St. Barbara, where a great trade was formerly carried on by the Dutch in African slaves. Lon. 69° 20′ W.; lat. 12° N.; population, 8500. The principal towns are Curaçao and Williamstadt. The city of Curaçao is well situated, and elegantly built. It is full of storehouses, and provided with every species of merchandise. Williamstadt is considered the capital.

CURASSOA ORANGES (aurantia curassaventia), or small oranges fallen from the tree long before their maturity, have properties similar to those of the orange-peel: they are, however, more bitter and acrid. They are used in the U. States and in England for the same purposes as the orange-peel, and also as issue peas.

CURDS; a wandering people, divided into many tribes, and dwelling in the country which lies between the foot of mount Caucasus and the Black sea, and stretches to the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates. Their incursions into the Russian territories have been checked by the troops on the frontier, and they have preferred to leave Persia rather than to become settled and tributary to the shah. They are Mohammedans, but neither of the Turkish nor Persian sect. The most unprincipled part of the Curds are the Yezides, who esteem the plunder of caravans, murder, theft and incest lawful. There are no Armenian Christians among this people, who, in spite of the repeated demands of the pacha, have never paid to the Porte either poll-tax or taxes on their property (miri). They, however, sometimes propose to the Porte the persons whom they wish as pachas and beys, and the Porte has never failed to comply with their request. It is said that the Curds

are descended from the Usbeck Tartars or from the Mongols; but their external appearance is very unlike that of the Tartars. The Curds wear a cloak of black goatskin, and, instead of a turban, a high, red cap. The Turkish dress is never worn, because they consider that it would mark them as vassals of the sultan. The young men wear mustachios; the old men suffer their beards to grow. The Curd is a good rider, and uses his lance with skill. He is fond of music, and sings in ballads the exploits of his nation. There are some of this people settled in the plains of Armenia, but no branch acknowledges itself tributary to the Porte. If the winter among the highlands proves too cold for the wild mountain Curd, he descends to these plains, and lives in low tents of dark, coarse linen. An enclosure made of reeds, near his tent, surrounds the place where he keeps his cattle, which he has brought from the mountains. This people, who live by plunder, respect the rights of hospitality, and usually make their guest some present when he departs. The patriarchal authority of parents is very great. A son never marries without their consent. Although otherwise so deficient in moral principle, they believe that no one can refuse the request of an unfortunate man without being punished by God. Mithridates, king of Pontus, took advantage of this belief to supply the losses of his army in his wars with the Romans. The more wonderful the escapes of the unfortunate individual, the more confident are they that he will experience a change of fortune. On this account, these mountains are the refuge of the enemies of the Turkish pachas; and they often return from them more formidable than they were before. Pottage, milk and honey form the principal food of the Curds. They drive annually to Constantinople alone 1,500,000 sheep, and goats in flocks of 1500-2000, the shepherds being from 15 to 18 months on the road, in going and returning. Northern Curdistan produces grain, sulphur and alum: the southern and warmer parts of the country produce corn, rice, sesamum, fruits, cotton, tobacco, honey, wax, manna and gall-nuts, exported by the way of Smyrna. Curdistan has sangiacks at Bayazid, Mouch, Van, Julamerk, Amadia, Suleihmanieh, Kara-Djiolan and Zahou. Of all these sangiacks, the Porte appoints only that of Van. Each sangiack governs a number of the tribes of his nation, who obey his commands in war, but are wholly independent of him in time of peace. The Chris