cally in Turkey, similar to that of the Jews in the Christiau world.

The whole number of the Armen.ans is very variously esti mated, from two and a half up to fifteen millions.'

The Armenian church, it may be remarked, has long been divided into two parts, which, although internally very similar, are inflexibly opposed to each other. The united Armenians, since the council of Florence, A. D. 1439, have been connected with the church of Rome. To them belongs the congregation of the Mechitarists, which was founded by the Abbot Mechitar (†1749), and possesses a famous monastery on the island of San Lazzaro near Venice, from which centre it has successfully labored since 1702 for Armenian literature and education in the interest of the Roman Catholic church. The schismatical Armenians hold firmly to their peculiar ancient doctrines and polity. They regard themselves as the orthodox, and call the united or Roman Armenians schismatics.

Since 1830, the Protestant Missionary, Tract, and Bible societies of England, Basle, and the United States, have labored among the Armenians, especially among the Monophysite portion, with great success. The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions,' in particular, has distributed Bibles and religious books in the Armenian and Armeno-Turkish language, and founded flourishing churches and schools in Constantinople, Broosa, Nicomedia, Trebizond, Erzroom, Aintab, Kharpoot, Diarbekir, and elsewhere. Several of these churches have already endured the crucial test of persecution, and jus

1 Stanley (History of the Eastern Church, p. 92), supported by Neale and Haxthausen (Transcaucasia), estimates the number of the Armenians at over eight millions. But Dr. G. W. Wood, of New York, formerly a missionary among them, in forms me that their total number probably does not exceed six millions, of whom about two and a half millions are probably in Turkey.

2

Comp. C. F. NEUMANN: Geschichte der armenischen Literatur nach den Werken der Mechitaristen, Leipzig, 1886. The chief work of the Mechitarists is the history of Armenia, by P. Michael Tschamtschean († 1823), in three vols., Venice, 1784.

'This oldest and most extensive of American missionary societies was founded ▲. D. 1810, and is principally supported by the Congregationalists and New School Presbyterians.

• The Armeno-Turkish is the Turkish language written in Armenian characters

tify bright hopes for the future. As the Jewish synagogues of the diaspora were witnesses for monotheism among idola ters, and preparatory schools of Christianity, so are these Protestant Armenian churches, as well as the Protestant Nestorian, outposts of evangelical civilization in the East, and perhaps the beginning of a resurrection of primitive Christianity in the lands of the Bible, and harbingers of the future conversion of the Mohammedans.'

IV. The youngest sect of the Monophysites, and the solitary memorial of the Monothelite controversy, are the MARONITES, so called from St. Maron, and the eminent monastery founded by him in Syria (400). They inhabit the range of Lebanon, with its declivities and valleys, from Tripolis on the North to the neighborhood of Tyre and the lake of Gennesaret on the South, and amount at most to half a million. They have also small churches in Aleppo, Damascus, and other places. They are pure Syrians, and still use the Syriac language in their liturgy, but speak Arabic. They are subject to a patriarch, who commonly resides in the monastery of Kanobin on Mt. Lebanon. They were originally Monothelites, even after the doctrine of one will of Christ, which is the ethical complement of the doctrine of one nature, had been rejected at the sixth ecumenical council (A. D. 680). But after the Crusades (1182), and especially after 1596, they began to go over to the Roman

'Compare, respecting the Armenian mission of the American Board, the publications of this Society; ELI SMITH and H. G. O. DWIGHT: Missionary Researches in Armenia, Boston, 1833; Dr. H. G. O. DWIGHT: Christianity revived in the East, New York, 1850; H. NEWCOMв: Cyclopædia of Missions, pp. 124-154. The principal missionaries among the Armenians are H. G. O. Dwight, W. Goodell, C. Hamlin, G. W. Wood, E. Riggs, D. Ladd, P. O. Powers, W. G. Schauffer (a Würtemberger, but educated at the Theol. Seminary of Andover, Mass.), and Benj. Schneider (a German from Pennsylvania, but likewise a graduate of Andover).

He is probably the same Maron whose life Theodoret wrote, and to whom Chrysostom addressed a letter when in exile. He is not to be confounded with the later John Maron, of the seventh century, who, according to the legendary traditions of the Catholic Maronites, acting as papal legate at Antioch, converted the whole of Lebanon to the Roman church, and became their first patriarch. The name "Maronites" occurs first in the eighth century, and that as a name of heretics, in John of Damascus.

church, although retaining the communion under both kinds their Syriac missal, the marriage of priests, and their tradi tional fast-days, with some saints of their own, especially St. Maron.

From these came, in the eighteenth century, the three cele brated Oriental scholars, the Assemani, Joseph Simon († 1768), his brother Joseph Aloysius, and their cousin Stephen Evodius. These were born on Mt. Lebanon, and educated at the Maronite college at Rome.

There are also Maronites in Syria, who abhor the Roman church.'

IV. THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONTROVERSIES.

WORKS ON THE PELAGIAN CONTROVERSY IN GENERAL

SOURCES:

L. PELAGIUS: Expositiones in epistolas Paulinas (composed before 410); Epistola ad Demetriadem, in 30 chapters (written A. D. 413); Libellus fidei ad Innocentium I. (417, also falsely called Explanatio Symboli ad Damasum). These three works have been preserved complete, as supposed works of Jerome, and have been incorporated in the Opera of this father (tom. xi. ed. of Vallarsius). Of the other writings of Pelagius (De natura; De libero arbitrio; Capitula; Epist. ad Innocent. I., which accompanied the Libellus fidei), we have only fragments in the works of his opponents, especially Augustine. In like manner we have only fragments of the writings of CELESTIUS: Definitiones; Symbolum ad Zosimum; and of JULIANUS OF ECLANUM: Libri iv. ad Turbantium episcopum contra Augustini primum de nuptiis; Libri viii. ad Florum contra Augustini secundum de nuptiis. Large and literal extracts in the extended replies of Augustine to Julian. II. AUGUSTINUS: De peccatorum meritis et remissione (412); De spiritu et litera (413); De natura et gratia (415); De gestis Pelagii (417); De gratia Christi et de peccato originali (418); De nuptiis et concupiscentia (419); Contra duas Epistolas Pelagianorum (420); Contra Julianum, libri vi. (421); Opus imperfectum contra Julianum (429); De

'Respecting the present condition of the Maronites, comp. also Robinson's Palestine, Ritter's Erdkunde, Bd. xvii. Abtheil. 1, and Rödiger's article in Herzog's Encycl. Bd. x. p. 176 ff. A few years ago (1860), the Maronites drew upon them. selves the sympathies of Christendom by the cruelties which their old hereditary enemies, the Druses, perpetrated upon them.

gratia et libero arbitrio (426 or 427); De correptione et gratia (427) De prædestinatione sanctorum (428 or 429); De dono perseverantiæ (429); and other anti-Pelagian writings, which are collected in the 10th volume of his Opera, in two divisions, ed. Bened. Par. 1690, and again Venet. 1733. (It is the Venice Bened. edition from which I have quoted throughout in this section. In Migne's edition of Aug., Par. 1841, the anti-Pelagian writings form likewise the tenth tomus of 1912 pages.) HIERONYMUS: Ep. 133 (in Vallarsi's, and in Migne's ed.; or, Ep. 43 in the Bened. ed.) ad Ctesiphontem (315); Dialogi contra Pelagianos, libri iii. (Opera, ed. Vallars. vol. ii. f. 693–806, and ed. Migne, ii. 495–590). P. OROSIUS: Apologeticus c. Pelag. libri iii. (Opera, ed. Haverkamp). MARIUS MERCATOR, a learned Latin monk in Constantinople (428-451): Commonitoria, 429, 431 (ed. Baluz. Paris, 1684, and Migne, Par. 1846). Collection of the Acta in MANSI, tom. iv.

LITERATURE:

GEZH. JOH. VOSSIUS: Hist. de controversiis, quas Pelagius ejusque reliquiæ moverunt, libri vii. Lugd. Batav. 1618 (auct. ed. Amstel. 1655). Cardinal HENR. NORISIUS: Historia Pelagiana et dissert. de Synodo Quinta Ecumen. Batavii, 1673, fol. (and in Opera, Veron. 1729, i.). GARNIER (Jesuit): Dissert. vii. quibus integra continentur Pelagianorum hist. (in his ed. of the Opera of Marius Mercator, i. 113). The Præfatio to the 10th vol. of the Benedictine edition of Augustine's Opera. CORN. JANSENIUS († 1638): Augustinus, sive doctrina S. Augustini de humanæ naturæ sanitate, ægritudine, medicina, adv. Pelagianos et Massilienses. Lovan. 1640, fol. (He read Augustine twenty times, and revived his system in the Catholic church.) TILLEMONT: Mémoires, etc. Tom. xiii. pp. 1-1075, which is entirely devoted to the life of Augustine. CH. WILH. FR. WALCH: Ketzerhistorie. Leipz. 1770. Bd. iv. and v. SCHRÖокн: Kirchengeschichte. Parts xiv. and xv. (1790). G. F. WIGGERS (sen.): Versuch einer pragmatischen Darstellung des Augustinismus und Pelagianismus, in zwei Theilen. Hamburg, 1833. (The first part appeared 1821 in Berlin; the second, which treats of Semi-Pelagianism, in 1833 at Hamburg. The common title-page bears date 1833. The first part has also been translated into English by Prof. EMERSON, Andover, 1840). J. L. JACOBI: Die Lehre des Pelagius. Leipzig, 1842. F. BÖHRINGER: Die Kirche Christi in Biographien. Bd. i. Th. 3, pp. 444-626, Zürich, 1845. GIESELER: Kirchengeschichte. Bd. i. Abth. 2 pp. 106–131 (4th ed. 1845, entirely favorable to Pelagianism). NEANDER: Kirchengeschichte. Bd. iv. (2d ed. 1847, more Augustinian). SCHAFF: The Pelagian Controversy, ir. the Bibliotheca Sacra, Andover, May, 1848 (No. xviii.). THEOD. GANGAUF: Metaphysische Psychologie des heiligen Augustinus. Augsb. 1852. Thorough, but not completed. H. HARI

MILMAN: History of Latin Christianity. New York, 1860, vol. i. ch. ü. pp. 164-194. JUL. MÜLLER: Die christliche Lehre von der Sünde. Bresl. 1838, 5th ed. 1866, 2 vols. (An English translation by Urwick, Edinburgh.) THE SAME: Der Pelagianismus. Berlin, 1854. (A brief, but admirable essay.) HEFELE: Conciliengeschichte. Bd. ii. 1856 p. 91 ff. W. CUNNINGHAM: Historical Theology. Edinburgh, 1863, vol. i. pp. 321-358. FR. WÖRTER (R. C.): Der Pelagianismus nach seinem Ursprung und seiner Lehre. Freiburg, 1866. NOURRISSON: La philosophie de S. Augustin. Par. 1866, 2 vols. (vol. i. 452 ff.; ii. 852 ff.). Comp. also the literature in $178, and the relevant chapters in the Doctrine-Histories of MÜNSCHER, BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, HAGENBACH, Neander, Baur, BeOK, SHEDD.

§ 146. Character of the Pelagian Controversy.

While the Oriental Church was exhausting her energies in the Christological controversies, and, with the help of the West, was developing the ecumenical doctrine of the person of Christ, the Latin church was occupied with the great anthropological and soteriological questions of sin and grace, and was bringing to light great treasures of truth, without either help from the Eastern church or influence upon her. The third ecumenical council, it is true, condemned Pelagianism, but without careful investigation, and merely on account of its casual connection with Nestorianism. The Greek historians, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Evagrius, although they treat of that period, take not the slightest notice of the Pelagian controversies. In this fact we see the predominantly practical character of the West, in contradistinction to the contemplative and speculative East. Yet the Christological and anthropologico-soteriological controversies are vitally connected, since Christ became man for the redemption of man. The person and the work of the Redeemer presuppose on the one hand man's capability of redemption, and on the other his need of redemption. Manichæism denies the former, Pelagianism the latter. In opposition to these two fundamental anthropological heresies, the church was called to develope the whole truth.

Before Augustine the anthropology of the church was exceedingly crude and indefinite. There was a general agree

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