Herodotus is apparently confining his survey to the sea-border of Palaestine, and that the fact narrated in the second is not alluded to in the sacred narrative. But, on the other hand, there is no mention in sacred or profane history of any other city, maritime or inland, that could at all answer to the description of Cadytis in respect to its size: and the capture of Jerusalem by Necho after the battle of Megiddo, which is evidently corrupted by Herodotus into Mag attached, perhaps, to two neighbouring sites afterwards incorporated into one. The sacred narrative, by implication, and Josephus, explicitly, recognise from the first a distinction between the Upper and the Lower city, the memorial of which is supposed to be retained in the dual form of the Hebrew name . The learned are divided in opinion as to whether the Salem of Melchizedek is identical with Jerusalem. St. Jerome, who cites Josephus and a host of Christian authorities in favour of their dolum, the name of a city on the frontier of Egypt identity, himself maintaining the opposite conclusion, towards Palaestine, with which he was more fasays that extensive ruins of the palace of Melchizedek miliar, though not expressly mentioned, is implied in Holy Scripture; for the deposition and deportation were shown in his day in the neighbourhood of Scythopolis, and makes the Salem of that patriarch Jehoiakim, could not have been effected, unless Necho of Jehoahaz, and the substitution and subjugation of identical with "Shalem, a city of Shechem" (Gen. had held possession of the capital. (2 Kings, xxiv. xxxiii. 18); the same, no doubt, with the Salim near to Aenon (St. John, iii. 23), where a village of the 29-35; comp. 2 Chron. xxxvi. 3.) It may, then, same name still exists in the mountains east of safely be concluded that Cadytis is Jerusalem; and Nablus. Certain, however, it is that Jerusalem is it is remarkable that this earliest form of its classical intended by this name in Psalm lxxvi. 2, and the name is nearly equivalent to the modern name by almost universal agreement of Jews and Christians which alone it is now known to its native inhabitants. El-Khuds signifies "the Holy (city)," and in its identity with the city of Melchizedek is still further confirmed by the religious character which this title appears to have been attached to it as early as the period of Isaiah (xlviii. 2, lii. 1), and is of seems to have attached to its governor at the time of the coming in of the children of Israel, when we find frequent recurrence after the Captivity. (Nehem. Its pagan it under the rule of Adonizedek, the exact equivalent xi. 1, 18; St. Matth. iv. 5, xxvii. 53.) name Colonia Aelia Capitolina, like those imposed on to Melchizedek ("righteous Lord"). Regarding, then, the latter half of the name as representing the many other ancient cities in Palaestine, never took ancient Salem, we have to inquire into the origin of any hold on the native population of the country, the former half, concerning which there is consider-nor, indeed, on the classical historians or ecclesiable diversity of opinion. Josephus has been understood to derive it from the Greek word lepov, prefixed to Salem. In the obscure passage (Ant. vii. 3. §2) 7 and : TT2 he is so understood by St. Jerome; but Isaac Vossius defends him from this imputation, which certainly would not raise his character as an etymologist. Lightfoot, after the Rabbies, and followed by Whiston, regards the former half of the name as an abbreviation of the latter part of the title Jehovah-jireh, which this place seems to have received on occasion of Abraham offering up his son on one of the mountains of "the land of Moriah." (Gen. xxii. 8, 14.) Reland, followed by Raumer, adopts the root yarash, and supposes the name to be compounded of D, which would give a very good sense," hereditas," or "possessio hereditaria pacis." Lastly, Dr. Wells, followed by Dr. Lee, regards the former part of the compound name as a modification of the name Jebus, ', one of the earlier names of the city, from which its Canaanitish inhabitants were designated Jebusites. Dr. Wells imagines that the was changed into 7, for the sake of euphony; Dr. Lee, for euphemy, as Jebusalem would mean "the trampling down of peace"-a name of ill omen. Of these various interpretations, it may be said that Lightfoot's appears to have the highest authority; but that Reland's is otherwise the most satisfactory. Its other Scripture name, Sion, is merely an extension of the name of one particular quarter of the city to the whole. There is a further question among critics as to whether by the city Cadytis, mentioned in Herodotus, Jerusalem is intended. It is twice alluded to by the historian: once as a city of the Syrians of Palaestine, not much smaller than Sardis (iii. 5); again, as having been taken by Pharoah- Necho, king of Egypt, after his victory in Magdolum (ii. 159). The main objections urged against the identity of Cadytis and Jerusalem in these passages, are, that in the former passage VOL. II. astical writers. It probably existed only in state papers, and on coins, many of which are preserved to this day. (See the end of the article.) II. GENERAL SITE. Jerusalem was situated in the heart of the moun tain district which commences at the south of the great plain of Esdraelon and is continued throughout southern extremity of the Promised Land. It is the whole of Samaria and Judaea quite to the almost equidistant from the Mediterranean and from and situated at an elevation of 2000 feet above the the river Jordan, being about thirty miles from each, level of the Mediterranean. Its site is well defined by its circumjacent valleys. city is a shallow depression, occupied by an ancient Valleys. (1) In the north-west quarter of the pool. This is the head of the Valley of Hinnom, which from this point takes a southern course, confining the city on the western side, until it makes a sharp angle to the east, and forms the southern boundary of the city to its south-east quarter, where it is met by another considerable valley from the north, which must next be described. (2) At the distance of somewhat less than 1500 yards from the " upper pool" at the head of the Valley of Hinnom, are the "Tombs of the Kings," situated at the head of the Valley of Jehoshaphat, which runs at first in an eastern course at some distance north of the modern city, until, turning sharply to the south, it skirts the eastern side of the town, and meets the Valley of Hinnom at the southeast angle, as already described, from whence they run off together in a southerly direction to the Dead Sea. Through this valley the brook Kedron is supposed once to have run; and, although no water has been known to flow through the valley within the annals of history, it is unquestionably entitled to the alias of the Valley of the Kedron. The space between the basin at the head of the Valley of Hinnom and the head of the Valley of C Jehoshaphat is occupied by a high rocky ridge or swell of land, which attains its highest elevation a little without the north-west angle of the present town. The city, then, occupied the termination of this broad swell of land, being isolated, except on the north, by the two great valleys already described, towards which the ground declined rapidly from all parts of the city. This rocky promontory is, however, broken by one or two subordinate valleys, and the declivity is not uniform. (3) There is, for example, another valley, very inferior in magnitude to those which encircle the city, but of great importance in a topographical view, as being the main geographical feature mentioned by Josephus in his description of the city. This valley of the Tyropoeon (cheese-makers) meets the Valley of Hinnom at the Pool of Siloam, very near its junction with the Valley of Jehoshaphat, and can be distinctly traced through the city, along the west side of the Temple enclosure, to the Damascus gate, where it opens into a small plain. The level of this valley, running as it does through the midst of a city that has undergone such constant vicissitudes and such repeated destruction, has of course been greatly raised by the desolations of so many generations, but is so marked a feature in modern as in former times, that it is singular it was not at once recognised in the attempt to re-distribute the ancient Jerusalem from the descriptions of Josephus. It would be out of place to enter into the arguments for this and other identifications in the topography of ancient Jerusalem; the conclusions only can be stated, and the various hypotheses must be sought in the works referred to at the end of the article. Hills. Ancient Jerusalem, according to Josephus, occupied "two eminences, which fronted each other, and were divided by an intervening ravine, at the brink of which the closely-built houses terminated." This ravine is the Tyropoeon, already referred to, and this division of the city, which the historian observes from the earliest period, is of the utmost importance in the topography of Jerusalem. The two hills and the intermediate valley are more minutely described as follows: This, then, was the disposition of the ancient city, on which a few remarks must be made before we proceed to the new city. The two-fold division, which, as has been said, is recognised by Josephus from the first, is implied also in the sacred narrative, not only in the account of its capture by the Israelites, and subsequently by David, but in all such passages as mention the city of David or Mount Sion as distinct from Salem and Jerusalem. (Comp. Josh. xv. 63; Judges, i. 8, 21; 2 Sam. v. 6—9; Psalms, lxxvi. 2, &c.) The account given by Josephus of the taking of the city is this: that "the Israelites, having besieged it, after a time took the Lower City, but the Upper City was hard to be taken by reason of the strength of its walls, and the nature of its position" (Ant. v. 2. § 2); and, subsequently, that "David laid siege to Jerusalem, and took the Lower City by assault, while the citadel still held out" (vii. 3. § 1). Having at length got possession of the Upper City also, "he encircled the two within one wall, so as to form one body" (§ 2). This could only be effected by taking in the interjacent valley, which is apparently the part called Millo. 66 (4) But when in process of time the city overflowed its old boundaries, the hill Bezetha, or New City, was added to the ancient hills, as is thus described by Josephus:- The city, being overabundant in population, began gradually to creep beyond its old walls, and the people joining to the city the region which lay to the north of the temple and close to the hill (of Acra), advanced considerably, so that even a fourth eminence was surrounded with habitations, viz. that which is called Bezetha, situated opposite to the Antonia, and divided from it by a deep ditch; for the ground had been cut through on purpose, that the foundations of the Antonia night not, by joining the eminence, be easy of approach, and of inferior height." The Antonia, it is necessary here to add, in anticipation of a more detailed description, was a castle situated at the north-western angle of the outer enclosure of the Temple, occupying a precipitous rock 50 cubits high. It is an interesting fact, and a convenient one to facilitate a description of the city, that the several (1) The Upper City.-" Of these eminences, that which had upon it the Upper City was by much the loftier, and in its length the straiter. This emi-parts of the ancient city are precisely coincident with nence, then, for its strength, used to be called the stronghold by king David,.... but by us it was called the Upper Agora. (2) The Lower City.-"The other eminence, which was called Acra, and which supported the Lower City, was in shape gibbous (άupíKUPTOS). (3) The Temple Mount.-"Opposite to this latter was a third eminence, which was naturally lower than Acra, and was once separated from it by another broad ravine: but afterwards, in the times when the Asmonaeans reigned, they filled up the ravine, wishing to join the city to the Temple; and having levelled the summit of Acra, they made it lower, so that in this quarter also the Temple might be seen rising above other objects. "But the ravine called the Tyropoeon (cheesemakers), which we mentioned as dividing the eminences of the Upper City and the Lower, reaches to Siloam; for so we call the spring, both sweet and abundant. But on their outer sides the two eminences of the city were hemmed in within deep ravines, and, by reason of the precipices on either side, there was no approach to them from any quarter." (B. Jud. v. 4, 5.) the distinct quarters of modern Jerusalem: for that, 1st, the Armenian and Jewish quarters, with the remainder of Mount Sion, now excluded from the walls, composed the Upper City; 2dly, the Mahommedan quarter corresponds exactly with the Lower City; 3dly, that the Haram-es-Sherif, or Noble Sanctuary, of the Moslems, occupies the Temple Mount; and 4thly, that the Haret (quarter) Bab-elHitta is the declivity of the hill Bezetha, which attains its greatest elevation to the north of the modern city wall, but was entirely included within the wall of Agrippa, together with a considerable space to the north and west of the Lower City, including all the Christian quarter. The several parts of the ancient city were enclosed by distinct walls, of which Josephus gives a minute description, which must be noticed in detail, as furnishing the fullest account we have of the city as it existed during the Roman period; a description which, as far as it relates to the Old city, will serve for the elucidation of the ante-Babylonish capital, as it is clear, from the account of the rebuilding of the walls by Nehemiah (iii., vi.), that the new fortifications followed the course of the ancient enceinte. III. WALLS. 1. Upper City and Old Wall." Of the three walls, the old one was difficult to be taken, both on account of the ravines, and of the eminence above them on which it was situated. But, in addition to the advantage of the position, it was also strongly built, as David and Solomon, and the kings after them, were very zealous about the work. Beginning towards the north, from the tower called Hippicus, and passing through the place called Xystus, then joining the council chamber, it was united to the western cloister of the Temple. In the other direction, towards the west, commencing from the same place, and extending through a place called Bethso to the gate of the Essenes, and then turning towards the south above the fountain Siloam, thence again bending toward the east to the Pool of Solomon, and running through a place which they called Ophla, it was joined to the eastern cloister of the Temple." To understand this description, it is only necessary to remark, that the walls are described, not by the direction in which they run, but by the quarter which they face; i. e. the wall" turning towards the south" is the south wall, and so with the others; so that the Hippic Tower evidently lay at the NW. angle of the Upper City; and, as the position of this tower is of the first importance in the description of the city walls, it is a fortunate circumstance that we are able to fix its exact site. The towers were constructed of white marble, in blocks of 20 cubits long, 10 wide, and 5 deep, so exactly joined together that each tower appeared to be one mass of rock." Now, the modern citadel of Jerusalem occupies the NW. angle of Mount Sion, and its northern wall rises from a deep fosse, having towers at either angle, the bases of which are protected on the outside by massive masonry sloping upward from the fosse. The NW. tower, divided only by the trench from the Jaffa gate, is a square of 45 feet. The NE., commonly known as the Tower of David, 70 feet 3 inches long, by 56 feet 4 inches broad. The sloping bulwark is 40 feet high from the bottom of the trench; but this is much choked up with rubbish. To the tower part there is no known or visible entrance, either from above or below, and no one knows of any room or space in it. The lower part of this platform is, indeed, the solid rock merely cut into shape, and faced with massive masonry, which rock rises to the height of 42 feet. This rock is doubtless the crest of the hill described by Josephus as 30 cubits or 45 feet high. Now, if the dimensions of Hippicus and Phasaelus, as already given, are compared with those of the modern towers on the north side of the citadel, we find that the dimensions of that at the NW. angle-three of whose sides are determined by the scarped rock on which it is based— so nearly agree with those of Hippicus, and the width of the NE. tower-also determined by the cut rock-so nearly with the square of Phasaelus, that there can be no difficulty in deciding upon their identity of position. Mariamne has entirely dis (1) The Hippic Tower is mentioned in connection with two neighbouring towers on the same north wall, all built by Herod the Great, and connected with his splendid palace that occupied the north-appeared. west angle of the Upper City. "These towers," says the historian, "surpassed all in the world in extent, beauty, and strength, and were dedicated to the memory of his brother, his friend, and his best loved wife. "The Hippicus, named from his friend, was a square of 25 cubits, and thirty high, entirely solid. Above the part which was solid, and constructed with massive stones, was a reservoir for the rain-water, 20 cubits in depth; and above this a house of two stories, 25 cubits high, divided into different apartments; above which were battlements of 2 cubits, on a parapet of 3 cubits, making the whole height 80 cubits. (2) "The Tower Phasaelus, which was named from his brother, was 40 cubits square, and solid to the height of 40 cubits; but above it was erected a cloister 10 cubits high, fortified with breastworks and ramparts; in the middle of the cloister was carried up another tower, divided into costly chambers and a bath-room, so that the tower was in nothing inferior to a palace. Its summit was adorned with parapets and battlements, more than the preceding. It was in all 90 cubits high, and resembled the tower of Pharus near Alexandria, but was of much larger circumference. (3) "The Tower Mariamne was solid to the height of 30 cubits, and 20 cubits square, having above a richer and more exquisitely ornamented dwelling. Its entire height was 55 cubits. "Such in size were the three towers; but they looked much larger through the site which they occupied; for both the old wall itself, in the range of which they stood, was built upon a lofty eminence, and likewise a kind of crest of this eminence reared itself to the height of 30 cubits, on which the towers being situated received much additional elevation. To these towers, situated on the north, was joined within (4) "The Royal Palace, surpassing all powers of description. It was entirely surrounded by a wall 30 cubits high, with decorated towers at equal intervals, and contained enormous banquetting halls, besides numerous chambers richly adorned. There were also many porticoes encircling one another, with different columns to each, surrounding green courts, planted with a variety of trees, having long avenues through them; and deep channels and reservoirs everywhere around, filled with bronze statues, through which the water flowed; and inany towers of tame pidgeons about the fountains." This magnificent palace, unless the description is exaggerated beyond all licence, must have occupied a larger space than the present fortress, and most probably its gardens extended along the western edge of Mount Sion as far as the present garden of the Armenian Convent; and the decorated towers of this part of the wall, which was spared by the Romans when they levelled the remainder of the city, seem to have transmitted their name to modern times, as the west front of the city wall at this part is called Abroth Ghazzeh, i.e. The Towers of Gaza. (5) As the Xystus is mentioned next to the Hippicus by Josephus, in his description of the north wall of the Upper City, it may be well to proceed at once to that; deferring the consideration of the Gate Gennath, which obviously occurred between the two, until we come to the Second Wall. The Xystus is properly a covered portico attached to the Greek Gymnasium, which commonly had uncovered walks connected with it. (Dict. Ant. p. 580.) the Jerusalem Xystus was a place where public meetings were occasionally convened (Bell. Jud. ii. 6. § 3), it must be understood to be a wide public As promenade, though not necessarily connected with a gymnasium, but perhaps rather with another palace which occupied "this extremity of the Upper City;" for the name was given also to a terraced walk with colonnades attached to Roman villas. (Vitruv. v. 11.) (6) The House of the Asmonaeans was above the Xystus, and was apparently occupied as a palace by the Younger Agrippa; for, when he addressed the multitude assembled in the Xystus, he placed his sister Berenice in the house of the Asmonaeans, that she might be visible to them. (B. J. l. c.) (7) The Causeway. At the Xystus we are told a causeway (yépupa) joined the Temple to the Upper City, and one of the Temple gates opened on to this causeway. That the yépupa was a causeway and not a bridge, is evident from the expression of Josephus in another passage, where he says that the valley was interrupted or filled up, for the passage (τῆς φάραγγος εἰς δίοδον ἀπειλημμένης, Ant. xv. 11. §5.). As the Tyropoeon divided the Upper from the Lower City, and the Temple Mount was attached to the Lower, it is obvious that the Tyropoeon is the valley here mentioned. This earthwall or embankment, was the work of Solomon, and is the only monument of that great king in Jerusalem that can be certainly said to have escaped the ravages of time; for it exists to the present day, serving the same purpose to the Mahometans as formerly to the Jews: the approach to the Mosk enclosure from the Bazaars passes over this causeway, which is therefore the most frequented thoroughfare in the city. (Williams, Holy City, vol. ii. pp. 392 397, and note, pp. 601--607.) It is highly probable that the Xystus was nothing else than the wide promenade over this mound, adorned with a covered cloister between the trees, with which the Rabbinical traditions assure us that Solomon's causeway was shaded. It is clear that the north wall of the Upper City must have crossed the valley by this causeway to the Gate Shallecheth, which is explained to mean the Gate of the Embankment. (1 Chron. xxvi. 16.) (8) The Council-Chamber (Bovλh, Bouλevтnplov) is the next place mentioned on the northern line of wall, as the point where it joined the western portico of the Temple. And it is remarkable that the corresponding office in the modern town occupies the same site; the Mehkemeh, or Council-Chamber of the Judicial Divan, being now found immediately outside the Gate of the Chain, at the end of the causeway, corresponding in position to the Shallecheth of the Scriptures. We have now to trace the wall of the Upper City in the opposite direction from the same point, viz. the Hippic Tower at the NW. angle. The points noticed are comparatively few. "It first ran southward (i. e. with a western aspect), through a place called Bethso, to the Gate of the Essenes; then, turning E., it ran (with a southern aspect) above the fountain of Siloam; thence it bent northward, and ran (with an eastern aspect) to the Pool of Solomon, and extending as far as a place called Ophla, was joined to the eastern cloister of the Temple." ii. On the West Front neither of the names which occur are found again in the notices of the city: but Bethso may safely be assigned to the site of the garden of the Armenian Convent, and the Gate of the Essenes may be fixed to a spot not very far from the SW. corner of the modern city, a little to the W. of the Tomb of David, near which a re markable ridge seems still to indicate the foundations of the ancient city wall. iii. Along the south face of the Upper City the old wall may still be traced, partly by scarped rock and partly by foundations of the ancient wall, which have served as a quarry for the repairs of the neighbouring buildings for many ages. Its course from this point to the Temple is very difficult to determine, as the steep declivity to the Tyropoeon would make it extremely inconvenient to carry the wall in a straight line, while, on the contrary, the absence of all notice of any deviation from a direct line in a description in which the angles are uniformly noted, would seem to imply that there was no such deflec. tion in its course. As it is clear, however, that the Upper City was entirely encompassed with a wall of its own, nowhere noticed by Josephus, except so far as it was coincident with the outer wall, it may be safely conjectured that this east wall of the Upper City followed the brow of the ridge from the southeast angle of the Hill Sion, along a line nearly coincident with the aqueduct; while the main wall continued its easterly course down the steep slope of Sion, across the valley of the Tyropoeon, not far from its inouth,-a little above the Pool of Siloam,and then up the ridge Ophel, until it reached the brow of the eastern valley. It may serve to countenance this theory to observe, that in the account of this wall in Nehemiah there is mention of "the stairs that go down from the city of David," by which stairs also the procession went up when encompassing the city wall. (iii. 15, xii. 37.) iv. The further course of the old wall to the eastern cloister of the Temple is equally obscure, as the several points specified in the description are not capable of identification by any other notices. These are the Pool of Solomon and a place called Ophla, in the description already cited, to which may be added, from an incidental notice, the Basilica of Grapte or Monobazus. (B. J. v. 8. § 1.) The Pool of Solomon has been sometimes identified with the Fountain of the Virgin, from which the Pool of Siloam is supplied, and sometimes with that very pool. Both solutions are unsatisfactory, for Siloam would scarcely be mentioned a second time in the same passage under another name, and the fountain in question cannot, with any propriety, be called a pool. The place called Ophla - in Scripture Ophel — is commonly supposed to be the southern spur of the Temple Mount, a narrow rocky ridge extending down to Siloam. But it is more certain that it is used in a restricted sense in this passage, than that it is ever extended to the whole ridge. (See Holy City, vol. ii. p. 365, note 7.) It was apparently a large fortified building, to the south of the Temple, connected with an outlying tower (Nehem. iii. 27, 28), and probably situated near the southern extremity of the present area of the Mosk of Omar. And the massive angle of ancient masonry at the SE. corner of the enclosure, "impending over the Valley of Jehoshaphat, which here actually bends southwest round the corner, having a depth of about 130 feet," may possibly have belonged to the "outlying tower," as it presents that appearance within (H. C. vol. ii. pp. 311, 317). It is clear, in any case, that the wall under consideration must have joined the eastern cloister of the Temple somewhere to the north of this angle, as the bend in the valley indicated by Dr. Robinson would have precluded the possibility of a junction at this angle. |