Nevada, in Granada and California), and survives in the modern Himalaya. From very early times the Greeks were aware of a great line of mountains running throughout Central Asia, nearly E. and W., between the 36th and 37th degrees of latitude, and which was known by the name of the diaphragm of Dicaearchus, or the parallel of Rhodes. The Macedonian expeditions of Alexander and Seleucus Nicator opened up Asia as far as the sources of the Ganges, but not further. But the knowledge which the Greeks thus obtained of Asia was much | enlarged by intercourse with other Eastern nations. The indications given by Strabo and Ptolemy (l. c.), when compared with the orographic configuration of the Asiatic continent, recognise in a very remarkable manner the principal features of the mountain chain of Central Asia, which extends from the Chinese province of Hou-pé, S. of the gulf of Petcheli, along the line of the Kuen-lün (not, as has generally been supposed, the Himálaya), continuing from the Hindú-Kush along the S. shores of the Caspian through Mázanderán, and rising in the crater-shaped summit of Damávend, through the pass of Elburz and Ghilan, until it terminates in the Taurus in the SW. corner of Asia Minor. It is true that there is a break between Taurus and the W. continuation of the Hindú-Kush, but the cold "plateaux" of Azerbijan and Kurdistán, and the isolated summit of Ararat, might easily give rise to the supposed continuity both of Taurus and AntiTaurus from Karamania and Argaeus up to the high chain of Elburz, which separates the damp, wooded, and unhealthy plains of Mázanderán from the arid" plateaux" of Irak and Khorasan. | of Imaus the BYLTAE (BûλTai, vi. 13. § 3), in the The These obscure orographical relations have been illustrated by Humboldt upon the most logical principles, and the result of many apparently contradictory accounts is so presented as to form one connected whole. (Asie Centrale, vol. i. pp. 100 The name of Imaus was, as has been seen, in the first instance, applied by the Greek geographers to the Hindu-Kush and to the chain parallel to the equator to which the name of Himálaya is usually-164, vol. ii. pp. 365-440.) given in the present day. Gradually the name was transferred to the colossal intersection running N. and S.,-the meridian axis of Central Asia, or the Bolor range. The division of Asia into "intra et extra Imaum" was unknown to Strabo and Pliny, though the latter describes the knot of mountains formed by the intersections of the Himalaya, the Hindú-Kush, and Bolor, by the expression "quorum (Montes Emodi) promontorium Imaus vocatur " (vi. 17). The Bolor chain has been for ages, with one or two exceptions, the boundary between the empires of China and Turkestan; but the ethnographical distinction between "Scythia intra et extra Imaum" was probably suggested by the division of India into "intra et extra Gangem," and of the whole continent into "intra et extra Taurum." In Ptolemy, or rather in the maps appended to all the editions, and attributed to Agathodaemon, the meridian chain of Imaus is prolonged up to the most northerly plains of the Irtych and Obi. The positive notions of the ancients upon the route of commerce from the Euphrates to the Seres, forbid the opinion, that the idea of an Imaus running from N. to S., and N. of the Himalaya, dividing Upper Asia into two equal parts, was a mere geographic dream. The expressions of Ptolemy are so precise, that there can be little doubt but that he was aware of the existence of the Bolor range. In the special description of Central Asia, he speaks twice of Imaus running from S. to N., and, indeed, clearly calls it a meridian chain (Kaтà μeonμsρivhv πws ypaμμhy, Ptol. vi. 14. § 1: comp. vi. 13. § 1), and places at the foot The Bolor range is one link of a long series of elevated ranges running, as it were, from S. to N., which, with axes parallel to each other, but alternating in their localities, extend from Cape Comorin to the Icy Sea, between the 64th and 75th degrees of longitude, keeping a mean direction of SSE. and NNW. Lassen (Indische Alterthumskunde) coincides with the results obtained by Humboldt. [E. B. J.] I'MBRASUS (Ιμβρασος), one of the three small rivers flowing down from Mount Ampelus in the island of Samos. (Strab. xiv. p. 637; Plin. v. 37.) According to a fragment from Callimachus (213; comp. Schol. ad Apollon. Rhod. i. 187, ii. 868), this river, once called Parthenius, flowed in front of the ancient sanctuary of Hera, outside the town of Samos, and the goddess derived from it the surname of Imbrasia. [L. S.] IMBRINIUM. [SAMNIUM.] IMBROS (Iμ6pos: Eth. "Iμspios), an island in the Aegaean sea, off the SW. coast of the Thracian Chersonesus, and near the islands of Samothrace and Lemnos. According to Pliny (iv. 12. s. 23), Imbros is 62 miles in circumference; but this is nearly double its real size. It is mountainous and well wooded, and its highest summit is 1845 feet above the level of the sea. It contains, however, several fertile valleys, and a river named Ilissus in antiquity. (Plin. l. c.) Its town on the northern side was called by the same name, and there are still some ruins of it remaining. Imbros was inhabited in early times by the Pelasgians, and was, like the neighbouring island of Samothrace, celebrated for its de Maire; but the numbers will not agree. The real distance is much less than xii. M. P., which is the distance in the Itin.; and D'Anville, applying his usual remedy, alters it to vii. But Walckenaer well objects to fixing on a little island or rock as the position of Immadrus, and then charging the Itinerary with being wrong. He finds the distance from a little bay west of Cap Morgiou to Marseille to agree with the Itin. measure of 12 M. P. [G. L.] worship of the Cabeiri and Hermes, whom the Carians called Imbrasus. (Steph. B. s. v. "Iμspos.) Both the island and the city of Imbros are mentioned by Homer, who gives to the former the epithet of wairaλoéσon. (Il. xiii. 33, xiv. 281, xxiv. 78, Hymn. in Apoll. 36.) The island was annexed to the Persian empire by Otanes, a general of Dareius, at which time it was still inhabited by Pelasgians. (Herod. v. 26.) It was afterwards colonised by the Athenians, and was no doubt taken by Miltiades IMMUNDUS SINUS (ἀκάθαρτος κόλπος, Strab. along with Lemnos. It was always regarded in xvii. p. 770; Diod. iii. 39; Ptol. iv. 5. §7; Plin. later times as an ancient Athenian possession: thus vi. 29. s. 33), the modern Foul Bay, in lat. 22° N., the peace of Antalcidas, which declared the inde- derived its appellation from the badness of its anpendence of all the Grecian states, nevertheless al-chorage, and the difficulty of navigating vessels lowed the Athenians to retain possession of Lemnos, among its numerous reefs and breakers. In its Imbros, and Scyros (Xen. Hell. iv. 8. § 15, v. 1. § furthest western recess lay the city of Berenice, 31); and at the end of the war with Philip the Ro-founded, or rather enlarged, by Ptolemy Philadelphus, mans restored to the same people the islands of Lemnos, Imbros, Delos, and Scyros. (Liv. xxxiii. 30.) The coins of Imbros have the common Athenian emblem, the head of Pallas. Imbros seems to have afforded good anchorage. The fleet of Antiochus first sailed to Imbros, and from thence crossed over to Sciathus. (Liv. xxxv. 43.) The ship which carried Ovid into exile also anchored in the harbour of Imbros, which the poet calls "Imbria Α COIN OF IMBROS. tellus." (Ov. Trist. i. 10, 18.) The island is still called by its ancient name, Embro or Imru. IMEUS MONS, is the name given in the Tabula Peutingeriana to the mountain pass which leads from the basin of the lake Fucinus to that of the Peligni, and was traversed by the Via Valeria on the way from Alba to Corfinium. This pass, now called the Forca Carruso, must in all ages have been an important line of communication, being a natural saddle-like depression in the ridge which bounds the lake Fucinus on the E., so that the ascent from Coll Armeno (Cerfennia) to the summit of the pass (a distance of 5 miles) presents but little difficulty. The latter is the highest point reached by the line of the Valerian Way in traversing the whole breadth of Italy from one sea to the other, but is elevated only a few hundred feet above the lake Fucinus. The Roman road across this pass was first rendered practicable for carriages by the emperor Claudius, who continued the Via Valeria from Cerfennia to the mouth of the Aternus. [CERFENNIA.] (Tab. Peut.; Holsten. Not. ad Cluv. p.154; Kramer, Fuciner See, pp. 14,60.) [E. H.B.] IMMADRUS or IMMADRA, a position on the coast of Gallia Narbonensis between Telo (Toulon) and Massilia. The distances along the coast were doubtless accurately measured, but we cannot be certain that they are accurately given in the MSS.; and it seems that the routes, especially in the parts near the coast, have been sometimes confounded. Immadrus, the next station east of Marseille, is placed by D'Anville, and others who follow him, at the Isle and so named by him in honour of his mother, the IMUS PYRENAEUS, a station in Aquitania, at INA (Iva, Ptol.: Eth. Inensis), a town of Sicily, the position of which is wholly unknown, except that Ptolemy reckons it among the inland towns in the south of the island. (Ptol. iii. 4. § 15.) That author is the only one of the geographers that mentions it, and the name has been thought corrupt; but it is supported by the best MSS. of Ptolemy, and the reading "Inenses" is equally well supported in Cicero (Verr. iii. 43), where the old editions had "Ennenses." (Zumpt, ad loc.) The orator appears to rank them among the minor communities of the island which had been utterly ruined by the exactions of Verres. [E. H. B.] INACHO'RIUM ('Ivaxápiov, Ptol. iii. 17. § 2), a city of Crete, which, from the similarity of sound, Mr. Pashley (Trav. vol. ii. p. 78) is inclined to believe was situated in the modern district of Enneákhoriá, on the W. coast of Crete. (Höck, Kreta, vol. i. p. 379.) [E. B. J.] I'NACHUS ("Ivaxos). 1. A river of the Argeia. [ARGOS, p. 200, b.] 2. A river in the territory of Argos Amphilochicum. [ARGOS AMPHILOCH., p. 208, b.] INAŘIME. [AENARIA.] I'NATUS (Ivaros, Ptol. iii. 17. § 2), a city of Crete, the same, no doubt, as Einatus (Earos, Steph. B.; Hesych. Etym. Magn. s. v.), situated on a mountain and river of the same name. The Peutinger Table puts a place called Inata on a river 24 M. P. E. of Lisia, and 32 M. P. W. of Hierapytna. These distances agree well with the three or four hamlets known by the name Kastelianá, derived from the Venetian fortress, Castle Belvedere, situated on a hill a little to the N. of the villages. The goddess Eileithyia is said to have been worshipped here, and to have obtained one of her epithets from it. (Callim, Fr. 168; Pashley, Trav. vol. i. p. 289; Höck, Kreta, vol. i. p. 412.) [E. B. J.] INCARUS, on the coast of Gallia Narbonensis, is placed by the Itin. next to Massilia. It is west of Massilia, and the distance is 12 M. P. The place is Carry, which retains its name. The distance of the Itin. was probably estimated by a boat rowing along the coast; and a good map is necessary to show how far it is correct. [G. L.] INCRIO'NES ('Iуxpiwves), a tribe of the Sigambri, mentioned only by Ptolemy (ii. 11. § 9). They apparently occupied the southernmost part of the territory inhabited by the Sigambri. Some believe them to be the same as the Juhones of Tacitus (Ann. xiii. 57), in whose territory an extensive conflagration of the soil occurred in A. D. 59. Some place them near the mouth of the river Lahn and the little town of Engers; while others, with less probability, regard Ingersheim, on the Neckar, as the place once inhabited by the Incriones. [L. S.] INDAPRATHAE ('Ivdaπрâðaι, Ptol. viii. 2. § 18, a name, doubtless, connected with the Sanscrit Indra-prastha), a people occupying nearly the same position as the IBERINGAE. [V.] INDIA (ʼn ’Ivdía, Polyaen. iv. 3. § 30; Plin. vi. 17. s. 20; ǹ Tŵv 'Ivoŵv yî, Arrian, Anab. v. 4; 'Ivdih, Strab. xi. p. 514: Eth. 'Ivoós), a country of great extent in the southern part of Asia, bounded on the north by the great chain of the Himalaya mountains, which extend, under variously modified names, from the Brahmaputra river on the E. to the Indus on the W., and which were known in ancient times under the names Emodus and Imaus. [EMODI MONTES.] These mountains separated the plain country of India to the S. of them from the steppes of Tátary on the N., and formed the water-shed of most of the great rivers with which India is so plentifully supplied. On the E. the Brahmaputra, which separates it from Ava and Burmah, is its principal boundary; though, if the definition of India be adopted which was in vogue among the later classical geographers, those countries as far as the commencement of the Chinese empire on the S. must be comprehended within the limits of India. On the S. it is bounded by the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean, and on the W. by the Indus, which separates it from Gedrosia, Arachosia, and the land of the Paropamisadae. Some writers, indeed (as Lassen, Pentap. Indic. Bonn, 1827), have considered the districts along the southern spurs of the Paropamisus (or Hindú-Kush) as part of India; but the passage of Pliny on which Lassen relies would make India comprehend the whole of Afghanistan to Beluchistan on the Indian Ocean; a position which can hardly be maintained as the deliberate opinion of any ancient author. ledge which the ancient world possessed of this country; a land which, from first to last, seems to have been to them a constant source of wonder and admiration, and therefore not unnaturally the theme of many strange and fabulous relations, which even their most critical writers have not failed to record. That Though the Greeks were not acquainted with India in the heroic ages, and though the name itself does not occur in their earliest writers, it seems not unlikely that they had some faint idea of a distant land in the far East which was very populous and fruitful. The occurrence of the names of objects of Indian merchandise, such as raσoitepos, éλépas, and others, would seem to show this. The same thing would seem to be obscurely hinted at in the two Aethiopias mentioned by Homer, the one towards the setting, and the other in the direction of the rising sun (Od. i. 23, 24); and a similar inference may probably be drawn from some of the early notices of these Aethiopians, whose separate histories are perpetually confounded together, many things being predicated of the African nation which could be only true of an Indian people, and vice versa. there were a people whom the Greeks called Aethiopes in the neighbourhood of, if not within the actual boundaries of India, is clear from Herodotus (vii. 70), who states in another place that all the Indians (except the Daradae) resembled the Aethiopians in the dark colour of their skins (iii. 101); while abundant instances may be observed of the intermixture of the accounts of the African and Indian Aethiopians, as, for example, in Ctesias (Indic. 7, ed. Bähr. p. 354), Pliny (viii. 30. 3), who quotes Ctesias, Scylax, in his description of India (ap. Philostrat. Vit. Apoll. iii. 14), Tzetzes (Chil. vii. 144), Aelian (H. An. xvi. 31), Agatharchides (de Rubro Mari, p. 44, ed. Huds.), Pollux (Onomast. v. 5), and many other writers. Just in the same way a confusion may be noticed in the accounts of Libya, as in Herodotus (iv. 168-199; cf. Ctesias, Indic. 13), where he intermixes Indian and African tales. Even so late as Alexander's invasion, we know that the same confusion prevailed, Alexander himself believing that he would find the sources of the Nile in India. (Strab. xv. p. 696; Arrian, Exp. Alex. vi. 1.) It is not remarkable that the Greeks should have had but little knowledge of India or its inhabitants till a comparatively late period of their history, and that neither Homer nor Pindar, nor the great Greek dramatists Sophocles and Euripides, should mention by its name either India or any of its people. It is probable that, at this early period, neither commerce nor any other cause had led the Greeks beyond the shores of Syria eastward, and that it was not till the Persian wars that the existence of vast and populous regions to the E. of Persia itself became distinctly known to them. Some individual names may have reached the ears of those who inquired; perhaps some indi It may, indeed, be doubted whether the Indians them-vidual travellers may have heard of these far distant selves ever laid down any accurate boundary of their country westward (Laws of Manu, ii. v. 22, quoted by Lassen, Pentap. Indic. p. 8); though the Sarasvati (Hydraotes) separated their sacred land from Western India. Generally, however, the Indus was held to be their western boundary, as is clear from Strabo's words (xv. p. 689), and may be inferred from Pliny's description (vi. 20. s. 23). It is necessary, before we proceed to give the prineipal divisions, mountain ranges, rivers, and cities of India, to trace very briefly, through the remains of classical literature, the gradual progress of the know realms; such, for instance, as the physician Democedes, when residing at the court of Dareius, the son of Hystaspes (Herod. iii. 127), and Democritus of Abdera (B. c. 460-400), who is said by several authors to have travelled to Egypt, Persia, Aethiopia, and India (Diog. Laërt. ix. 72; Strab. xvi. p. 703; Clem. Strom. i. p. 304; Suidas, s. v.). Yet little was probably known beyond a few names. The first historian who speaks clearly on the subject is Hecataeus of Miletus (B.C. 549—486). In the few fragments which remain of his writings, and which have been carefully collected by Klausen (Berl. 1831), the Indi and the Indus (Fragm. 174 and 178), the Argante (Fragm. 176), the people of Opia on the banks of the Indus (Fragm. 175), the Calatiae, (Fragm. 177; Herod. iii. 38; or Calantiae, Herod. iii. 97), Gandara and the Gandarii (Fragm. 178) and their city Caspapyrus (Fragm. 179; Caspatyrus, Herod. iii. 102, iv. 44), are mentioned, in company with other Eastern places. Further, it appears, from the testimony of Herodotus, that Scylax of Caryanda, who was sent by Dareius, navigated the Indus to Caspatyrus in Pactyice, and thence along the Erythraean sea by the Arabian gulf to the coast of Egypt (iv. 44); in the course of which voyage he must have seen something of India, of which he is said to have recorded several marvels (cf. Aristot. Polit. vii. 14; Philostr. Vit. Apoll. Tyan. iii. 14; Tzetz. Chil. vii. 144); though Klausen has shown satisfactorily, in his edition of the fragments which remain, that the Periplus usually ascribed to this Scylax is at least as late as the time of Philip of Macedon. The notices preserved in Herodotus and the remains of Ctesias are somewhat fuller, both having had opportunities, the one as a great traveller, the other as a resident for many years at the court of Artaxerxes, which no previous writers had had. The knowledge of Herodotus (B. c. 484-408) is, however, limited to the account of the satrapies of Dareius; the twentieth of which, he states, comprehended that part of India which was tributary to the Persians (iii. 94), the country of the most Eastern people with whom he was acquainted (iii. 95-102). To the S. of them, along the Indian Ocean, were, according to his view, the Asiatic Aethiopians (iii. 94); beyond them, desert. He adds that the Indians were the greatest and wealthiest people known; he speaks of the Indus (on whose banks, as well as on those of the Nile, crocodiles were to be seen) as flowing through their land (iv. 44), and mentions by name Caspatyrus (a town of Pactyice), the nomadic Padai (iii. 99), and the Calatiae (iii. 38) or Calantiae (iii. 97). He places also in the seventh satrapy the Gandarii (iii. 91) [GANDARAE], a race who, under the name of Gandharas, are known as a genuine Sanscritspeaking tribe, and who may therefore be considered as connected with India, though their principal seat seems to have been on the W. side of the Indus, probably in the neighbourhood of the present Candahar. the separate narratives of Beton and Diognetus, Nearchus, Onesicritus, Aristobulus, and Callisthenes, condensed and extracted by Strabo, Pliny, and Arrian, we owe most of our knowledge of India as it appeared to the ancients. None of the original works of these writers have been preserved, but the voyage of Nearchus (the most important of them, though the places in India he names are few in number) has been apparently given by Arrian (in his Indica) with considerable minuteness. Nearchus seems to have kept a day-book, in which he entered the distances between each place. He notices Pattala, on the Indus (from which he started), and Coreatis (perhaps the present Kuráchi). Pliny, who calls this voyage that of Nearchus and Onesicritus, adds some few places, not noticed by Arrian (vi. 23. s. 26). Onesicritus himself considered the land of the Indians to be one-third of the whole inhabited world (Strab. xv. p. 691), and was the first writer who noticed Taprobane (Ceylon). (Ibid. p. 691.) Both writers appear, from Strabo, to have left interesting memorials of the manners and customs of the natives (Strab. xi. p. 517, xv. p. 726) and of the natural history of the country. (Strab. xv. pp. 693, 705, 716, 717; Aelian, Hist. An. xvi. 39, xvii. 6; Plin. vi. 22. s. 24, vii. 2. s. 2; Tzetz. Chil. iii. 13.) Aristobulus is so frequently quoted by Arrian and Strabo, that it is not improbable that he may have written a distinct work on India: he is mentioned as noticing the swelling and floods of the rivers of the Panjab, owing to the melting of the snow and the rain (Strab. xv. p. 691), the mouths of the Indus (p. 701), the Brachmanes at Taxila (p. 714), the trees of Hyrcania and India (xi. p. 509), the rice and the mode of its tillage (xv. p. 692), and the fish of the Nile and Indus, respectively (xv. p. 707, xvii. p. 804). were some Subsequently to these writers,―probably all in the earlier part of the third century B. C., others, as Megasthenes, Daimachus, Patrocles and Timosthenes, who contributed considerably to the increasing stock of knowledge relative to India. Of these, the most valuable additions were those acquired by Megasthenes and Daimachus, who were respectively ambassadors from Seleucus to the Courts of Sandrocottus (Chandragupta) and his successor Allitrochades (Strab. ii. p. 70, xv. p. 702; Plin. vi. 17. s. 21), or, as it probably ought to be written, Amitrochades. Megasthenes wrote a work often quoted by subsequent writers, which he called Tà 'Ivoiκá (Athen. iv. p. 153; Clem. Alex. Strom. i. p. 132; Joseph. c. Apion. i. 20, Antiq. x. 11. § 1), in which he probably embodied the results of his Ctesias (about B. C. 400) wrote twenty-three books of Persica, and one of Indica, with other works on Asiatic subjects. These are all lost, except some fragments preserved by Photius. In his Per-observations. From the fragments which remain, sica he mentions some places in Bactria (Fragm. 5, ed. Bähr) and Cyrtaea, on the Erythraean sea (Fragm. 40); and in his Indica he gives an account of the Indus, of the manners and customs of the natives of India, and of its productions, some of which bear the stamp of a too credulous mind, but are not altogether uninteresting or valueless. On the advance of Alexander through Bactriana | to the banks of the Indus, a new light was thrown on the geography of India; and the Greeks, for the first time, acquired with tolerable accuracy some knowledge of the chief features of this remarkable country. A number of writers-some of them officers of Alexander's army-devoted themselves to a description of different parts of his route, or to an account of the events which took place during his progress from Babylon to the Hyphasis; and to and which have been carefully collected by Schwanbeck (Megasthenis Indica, Bonn, 1846), it appears that he was the first to give a tolerably accurate account of the breadth of India,-making it about 16,000 stadia (Arrian, iii. 7, 8; Strab. i. p. 68, xv. p. 689),-to mention the Ganges by name, and to state that it was larger than the Indus (Arrian, v. 6, 10, Indic. 4, 13), and to give, besides this, some notice of no less than fifteen tributaries of the Indus, and nineteen of the Ganges. He remarked that India contained 118 nations, and so many cities that they could not be numbered (Arrian, Indic. 7, 10); and observed (the first among the Greeks) the existence of castes among the people (Strab. xv. p. 703; Arrian, Ind. 11, 12; Diod. ii. 40, 41; Solin. c. 52), with some peculiarities of the Indian religious system, and of the Brachmanes (or Brah He mans). (Strab. xv. pp. 711-714; Clem. Alex. | time was finally reduced into a consistent shape by Strom. i. 131.) Again Daimachus, who lived for a Strabo (B. c. 66-A. D. 36). His view of India long time at Palibothra (Strab. ii. p. 70), wrote a was not materially different from that which had work upon India, which, though according to Strabo been the received opinion since Eratosthenes. .full of fables, must also have contained much valu- held that it was the greatest and most Eastern land able information. Patrocles, whom Strabo evidently in the world, and the Ganges its greatest stream deemed a writer of veracity (Strab. ii. p. 70), as (ii. p. 130, xv. pp. 690, 719); that it stretched S. the admiral of Seleucus, sailed upon the Indian as far as the parallel of Meroë, but not so far N. as Ocean, and left an account, in which he stated his Hipparchus thought (ii. pp. 71, 72, 75); that it was belief that India was the same breadth that Me- in shape like a lozenge, the S. and E. being the gasthenes had maintained (Strab. ii. p. 69. xv. longest sides. Its greatest breadth was 16,000 p. 689); but also that it could be circumnavigated stadia on the E., its least 13,000 on the W.; its an erroneous view, which seems to have arisen from greatest length on the S., 19,000 stadia. Below the idea, that the Caspian Sea and the Northern the S. coast he placed Taprobane, which was, in his Ocean were connected. (Strab. ii. p. 74, xi. p. 518.) opinion, not less than Great Britain (ii. p. 130, With the establishment of the mathematical xv. p. 690). Pliny the Elder and Pomponius Mela, schools at Alexandria, commenced a new aera in who were contemporaries, added somewhat to the Grecian geography; the first systematic arrangement geographical knowledge previously acquired, by inof the divisions of the earth's surface being made by corporating into their works the results of different Eratosthenes (B. C. 276-161), who drew a series of expeditions sent out during the earlier emperors. parallels of latitude-at unequal distances, however Thus, Pliny follows Agrippa in making India 3300 -through a number of places remotely distant from M. P. long, and 2300 M. P. broad, though he himone another. According to his plan, his most self suggests a different and shorter distance (vi. southern parallel was extended through Taprobane 17. s. 21); while, after Seneca, he reckoned that it and the Cinnamon coast (the SE. end of the Arabian contained 118 peoples and 60 rivers. The Emodus, Gulf); his second parallel (at an interval of 3400 Imaus, Paropamisus, and Caucasus, he connected in stadia) passed though the S. coast of India, the one continued chain from E. to W., stating that S. mouths of the Indus and Meroë; his third (at an of these great mountains, the land was, like Egypt, interval of 5000 stadia) passed through Palibothra one vast plain (vi. 18. s. 22), comprehending many and Syene; his fourth (at a similar interval) con- wastes and much fruitful land (vi. 20. s. 23). nected the Upper Ganges, Indus, and Alexandria; For a fuller notice of Taprobane than had been given his fifth (at an interval of 3750 stadia) passed by previous writers, he was indebted to the ambasthrough Thina (the capital of the Seres), the whole sadors of the emperor Claudius, from whom he chain of the Emodus, Imaus, Paropamnisus, and the learnt that it had towards India a length of 10,000 island of Rhodes. (Strab. i. p. 68, ii. pp. 113-132.) stadia, and 500 towns,-one, the capital, PalaesiAt the same time he drew seven parallels of lon- mundum, of vast size. The sea between it and the gitude (or meridians), the first of which passed continent is, he says, very shallow, and the distance through the E. coast of China, the second through from the nearest point a journey of four days (vi. 22. the mouths of the Ganges, and the third through s. 24). The measurements of the distances round those of the Indus. His great geographical error the coast of India he gives with some minuteness, was that the intersection of his meridians and lati- and in some instances with less exaggeration than tudes formed right angles. (Strab. ii. pp. 79, 80, his predecessors. 92, 93.) The shape of the inhabited portion of the globe he compared to a Macedonian Chlamys extended. (Strab. ii. p. 118, xi. p. 519; Macrob. Somn. Scip. ii. 9.) The breadth of India between the Ganges and Indus he made to be 16,000 stadia. Taprobane, like his predecessors, he held to be 5000 stadia long. Hipparchus (about B.C.150), the father of Greek astronomy, followed Patrocles, Daimachus, and Megasthenes, in his view of the shape of India; making it, however, not so wide at the S. as Eratosthenes had made it (Strab. ii. pp. 77, 81), but much wider towards the N., even to the extent of from 20,000 to 30,000 stadia (Strab. ii. p. 68). Taprobane he held not to be an island, but the commencement of another continent, which extended onward to the S. and W.,- following, probably, the idea which had prevailed since the time of Aristotle, that Africa and SE. India were connected on the other side of the Indian Ocean. (Mela, iii. 7. § 7; Plin. vi. 22. s. 24.) Artemidorus (about B. c. 100) states that the Ganges rises in the Montes Emodi, flows S. till it arrives at Gange, and then E. by Palibothra to its mouths (Strab. xv. p. 719): Taprobane he considered to be about 7000 stadia long and 500 broad (Steph. B.). The whole breadth of India, from the Ganges to the Indus, he made to be 16,000 stadia. (Plin. vi. 19. s. 22.) The greater part of all that was known up to his With Marinus of Tyre and Claudius Ptolemaeus, in the middle of the second century, the classical knowledge of geography may be said to terminate. The latter, especially, has, in this branch of knowledge, exercised an influence similar to that of Aristotle in the domain of the moral and physical sciences. Both writers took a more comprehensive view of India than had been taken before, owing in some degree to the journey of a Macedonian trader named Titianus, whose travels extended along the Taurus to the capital of China (Ptol. i. 11. § 7), and to the voyage of a sailor named Alexander, who found his way across the Indian Ocean to Cattigara (Ptol. i. 14. § 1), which Ptolemy places in lat. 8° 30' S., and between 170° and 180° E. long. Hence, his idea that the Indian Ocean was a vast central sea, with land to the S. Taprobane he held to be four times as big as it really is (vii. 4), and the largest island in the world; and he mentions a cluster of islands to the NE. and S. (in all probability, those now known as the Maldives and Laccadives). In the most eastern part of India, beyond the Gulf of Bengal, which he terms the Golden Chersonesus, he speaks of LABADIUS and MANIOLAE; the first of which is probably that now known as Java, while the name of the second has been most likely preserved in Manilla. The main divisions of India into India intra Gangem and India extra Gangem, have been adopted by the |