and was erected by a certain M. Tullius, a citizen and magistrate of Pompeii, who has been supposed to be of the family of Cicero; but the absence of the cognomen renders this highly improbable. The epithet of Fortuna Augusta shows that the temple and its inscription are not earlier than the time of Augustus. It is much in ruins, having probably suffered severely from the earthquake of 63; and has little architectural effect.

Pompeii possessed two Theatres and an Amphitheatre. The former were situated, as seems to have been usual in Greek towns, close together; the larger one being intended and adapted for theatrical performances properly so called; the smaller one serving as an Odeum, or theatre for music. Both are unquestionably of Roman date: the larger one was erected (as we learn from an inscription found in it) by two members of the same family, M. Holconius Rufus and M. Holconius Celer, both of whom appear to have held high civil offices in the municipal government of Pompeii. The period of its construction may probably be referred to the reign of Augustus. The smaller theatre seems to be of earlier date, and was erected at the public expense under the direction of the Duumviri or chief magistrates of the city. The large Theatre is to a considerable extent excavated out of the side of a hill, on the slope of which it was situated, thus saving a considerable amount of the expense of construction. But the exterior was still surrounded by a wall, a part of which always rose above the surface of the soil, so that it is singular it should not have long before led to the discovery of the buried city. Its internal disposition and arrangements, without exactly coinciding with the rules laid down by Vitruvius, approach sufficiently near to them to show that it was constructed on the Roman, and not the Greek model. Its architect (as we learn from an inscription) was a freedman of the name of M. Artorius Primus. It seems to have been almost wholly cased or lined with marble, but the greater part of this, as well as the other decorations of the building, has been carried away by former excavations, probably made soon after the catastrophe. The interior diameter of the building is 223 feet: it had 29 rows of seats, divided into three stories by galleries or praecinctiones, and was capable of containing about 5000 spectators. The smaller Theatre, which communicated with the larger by a covered portico on the level of the orchestra, was not above a fourth of the size of the other, being adapted to receive only about 1500 spectators. We learn from an inscription that it was covered or permanently roofed in, a rare thing with ancient theatres, and doubtless owing to its small size. Its chief architectural peculiarity is that the seats are cut off by the walls at the two sides, so that it is only the lower seats of the cavea, of which the semicircle is complete.

Adjoining the two theatres, and arranged so as to have a direct communication with both, is a large quadrangular court or area (183 feet long by 148 wide), surrounded on ali sides by a Doric portico. Its destination is very uncertain, it has been called a provision market (Forum Nundinarium); but is more generally regarded as having served for the barracks or quarters of the soldiers. Perhaps a more plausible conjecture is that it was a barrack, not of soldiers but of gladiators. On the W. of this, as well as of the great theatre, was the triangular area or forum already noticed, in which the Greek temple was situated. The opening

of this on the N., where it communicated with the street, was ornamented by a portico or Propylaeum composed of eight Ionic columns of very elegant style, but consisting of the common volcanic tufo, cased with stucco.

The Amphitheatre is situated at the distance of above 500 yards from the Theatres, at the extreme SE. angle of the city. It offers no very remarkable differences from other edifices of the same kind: its dimensions (430 feet by 335) are not such as to place it in the first rank even of provincial structures of the class; and from being in great part excavated out of the soil, it has not the imposing architectural character of the amphitheatres of Verona, Nemausus, or Pola. It had 24 rows of seats, and about 20.000 feet of sitting-room, so that it was adapted to receive at least 10,000 spectators. From one of the inscriptions found in it, it appears that it was built, or at least commenced, by two local magistrates, named C. Quinctius Valgus and M. Porcius, after the establishment of the colony under Augustus, and probably in the reign of that emperor.

The only public building which remains to be noticed is that of the Thermae or Baths, which were situated in the neighbourhood of the Forum, adjoining the short street which led into it from the Temple of Fortune. They have no pretence to vie with the magnificent suites of buildings which bore the name of Thermae at Rome, and in some other great cities; but are interesting as containing a complete suite of all apartments really required for bathing, and from their good preservation throw much light upon all similar remains. The details of their construction and arrangement are fully given in the Dictionary of Antiquities [art. BALNEAE], as well as in the works specially devoted to Pompeii.

It is impossible here to enter into any details concerning the results of the excavations in regard to the private dwellings at Pompeii, though these are, in many respects, the most interesting, from the light they have thrown upon the domestic life of the ancient inhabitants, their manners and usages, as well as from the artistic beauty and variety of the objects discovered. A few words on the general character of the houses and other private buildings of Pompeii are all that our space will admit of. As these are almost the only remains of a similar kind that have been preserved to us, it must be borne in mind that they can hardly be regarded as representing in their purity the arrangements either of the Greek or Roman mode of building. On the one hand Pompeii, though strongly tinctured with Greek civilisation, was not a Greek city; on the other hand. though there is no doubt that the houses at Pompeii present much more the Roman plan and arrangement than that of the Greeks, we must not conclude that they represent them in all respects. We know, at least, that Rome itself was built in many respects in a very different manner. Cicero, in a wellknown passage, contrasts the narrow streets, the lofty houses, and irregular construction of the capital with the broad streets and regular arrangement of Capua, resulting from its position in a level plain; and it is clear that, in some respects, Pompeii more resembled the capital of Campania than the imperial city. Its streets indeed (as already stated) were narrow, but with few exceptions straight and regular, and the houses were certainly low, seldom exceeding two stories in height; and even of these the upper story seems to have consisted

only of inferior rooms, a kind of garrets, probably | serving for the sleeping-rooms of slaves, and in some cases of the females of the family. From the mode of destruction of the city the upper stories have indeed been almost uniformly totally destroyed; but this circumstance itself, as well as the few traces which occasionally remain, seems to prove that they were built wholly of wood, and could never have formed an important part of the houses. It is only on the W. side of the city, where the ground slopes steeply towards the sea, that houses are found which consisted of three stories or more. Externally the houses had little or nothing of an ornamental character; not a single instance has been found of a portico before a private house; and towards the street they presented either dead walls, with here and there a few small and scanty openings as windows, or ranges of shops, for the most part low and mean in character, even when they occupied (as was often the case) the front of dwellings of a superior description. The interior of the houses of the more wealthy class was arranged apparently on the same model as those at Rome; its disposition is given in detail in the Dictionary of Antiquities under the article DOMUS where a plan is given of the House of Pansa, one of the most extensive and complete of those found at Pompeii. In this case the singie house with its garden and appurtenances, including as usual several shops, occupied the whole of an insula or the space bounded by four streets or alleys: but this was unusual; in most cases each insula comprised several houses even where they were of a better description, and must have been the residence of persons of some wealth. Among the most remarkable of these may be mentioned the dwellings known as the House of Sallust, that of the Tragic Poet, of Castor and Pollux, of the Labyrinth, &c. The work of Dr. Overbeck (above cited) gives a very interesting series of these houses, selected so as to afford examples of every description of house, from the humblest dwelling. consisting of only two rooms, to the richly decorated and spacious mansions of Sallust and Pansa. The style of decoration of these houses presents a very general uniformity of character. The walls are almost invariably ornamented with painting, the

atrium and peristyle being decorated with columns; but these are composed only of a soft and coarse stone (volcanic tufo) covered with stucco. The prodigal use of marble, both for columns and slabs to encrust the walls, which had become so general at Rome under the first emperors, apparently not having yet found its way to Pompeii. The floors are generally enriched with mosaics, some of which possess a very high degree of merit as works of art. The most beautiful yet discovered adorned the house known as the House of the Faun, from a bronze statue of a dancing Faun which was also found in it. The illustrations to Gell's Pompeiana (2nd series, Lond. 1835) will convey to the reader a sufficient idea of the number and variety of the artistic decorations of the private houses at Pompeii; though several of the most richly ornamented have been discovered since the date of its publication.

Outside the gate leading to Herculaneum, in a kind of suburb, stands a house of a different description, being a suburban villa of considerable extent, and adapted to have been the abode of a person of considerable wealth. From the greater space at command this villa comprises much that is not found in the houses within the town; among others a large court or garden (Xystus), a complete suite of private baths, &c. The remains of this villa are of much value and interest for comparison with the numerous ruins which occur elsewhere of similar buildings, often on a much more extensive scale, but in a far less perfect state of preservation; as well as for assisting us to understand the descriptions given by Pliny and Vitruvius of similar structures, with their numerous appurtenances. (For the details of their arrangements the reader is referred to the article VILLA, in the Dictionary of Antiquities, and to the work on Pompeii, Lond. 1832, vol. ii. ch. 11.) Between this villa and the gate of the city are the remains of another villa, said to be on a larger scale and more richly decorated than the one just described; but its ruins, which were excavated in 1764, were filled up again, and are not now visible. It has been called, though without the slightest authority, the Villa of Cicero. one still extant is commonly known as the Villa of Arrius Diomedes, but for no other reason than that

The

The name Pompeiopolis was borne temporarily by several towns, such as SOLI in Cilicia, AMISUS and EUPATORIA in Cappadocia, as well as by POMPELON in Tarraconensian Spain. [L. S.]

Besides the tombs and the two villas already noticed, there have been found the remains of shops and small houses outside the gate of Herculaneum, and there would appear to have been on this side of the city a considerable suburb. This is supposed to be the one designated in the sepulchral inscription of M. Arrius Diomedes as the "Pagus Augustus Felix Suburbanus." We have as yet no evidence of the existence of any suburbs outside the other gates. It is evident that any estimate of the population of Pompeii must be very vague and uncertain; but still from our accurate knowledge of the space it occupied, as well as the character of the houses, we may arrive at something like an approximation, and it seems certain that the population of the town itself could not have exceeded about 20,000 persons. This is in accordance with the statements of ancient writers, none of whom would lead us to regard Pompeii as having been more than a second or third rate provincial town.

The inscriptions found at Pompeii, which are often incorrectly given in the ordinary works on the subject, are carefully edited by Mommsen, in his Inscriptiones Regni Neapolitani (pp. 112-122). These do not, however, include a class of much interest, and peculiar to Pompeii, the inscriptions of a temporary kind which were rudely painted on the walls, or scratched on the plaster of the houses and public buildings. It is remarkable that several of these are in the Oscan dialect, and seem to prove that the use of that ancient language must have continued down to a much later period than is commonly supposed. [Osci]. But the public or official use of the Oscan seems to have ceased after the Social War, and the numerous inscriptions of a public character which belong to the age of Augustus and his successors are uniformly in the Latin language. [E. H. B.]

POMPEII PRAESIDIUM (Tab. Peut.; Pompeii, Itin. Ant. p. 134; Ipompei, Itin. Hieros. p.566), a place in Moesia Superior, between Horreum Margi and Naissus, identified either with Kaschnia (Reichard) or Boulovan (Lapie).

POMPEIO'POLIS (Пoμπηiοúñоλis), a town of Paphlagonia, on the southern bank of the river Amnias, a tributary of the Halys (Strab. xii. p. 562; Steph. B. s. v.). Its name seems to indicate that it was founded by Pompey the Great. In the Itineraries it is marked as 27 miles from Sinope; accord

PO'MPELO (Поμπeλúv, Рtol. ii. 6. § 67; Strab. iii. p. 161, who makes the name equivalent to ПoμTηiónoλis), the chief town of the Vascones in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Asturica to Burdigala (Itin. Ant. p. 455), and a civitas stipendiaria in the jurisdiction of Caesaraugusta. (Plin. iii. 3. s. 4.) Now Pamplona. [T. H. D.]

POMPONIA'NA. Pliny (iii. 5) says that Pomponiana is the same as Mese, the middle island of the Stoechades or Isles d Hières [STOECHADES], which lie close to the French coast east of Toulon. D'Anville, following the Maritime Itinerary, which places Pomponiana between Telo (Toulon) and Heracleia Caccabaria [HERACLEIA], thinks that Pomponiana is the peninsula of Giens, which is opposite to the western point of Prote (Porqueroles), the most western of the Stoechades. He remarks that the part of Giens which is on the land side is almost covered by a lagune, from which there are channels to the sea on both sides, so that the peninsula may be considered as an island. [G. L.] POMPONIA'NIS PORTUS. [PORTUS POMPONIANIS.]

POMPTINAE PALUDES (τὰ Πομπτῖνα ἕλη: Paludi Pontine) was the name given to the extensive tract of marshy ground in the S. of Latium at the foot of the Volscian mountains, extending from the neighbourhood of Cisterna to the sea at Terracina. They occupy a space of about 30 miles in length by 7 or 8 in breadth: and are separated from the sea on the W. by a broad tract of sandy plain, covered with forest, which is also perfectly level, and intermixed with marshy spots, and pools or lagoons of stagnant water, so that it is almost as unhealthy as the regular marsh, and the whole tract is often comprised under the name of the Pontine Marshes. The extremely low level of this whole tract, affording scarcely any natural outfall for the waters which descend into it from the Volscian mountains, together with the accumulation of sand along the seashore from Astura to the Circeian promontory, readily accounts for the formation of these extensive marshes; and there can be no doubt that the whole of this low alluvial tract is of very recent origin compared with the rest of the adjoining mainland. Still there is the strongest reason from physical considerations to reject the notion very generally entertained by the Romans, and adopted by Pliny, that the whole of this accumulation had taken place within the period of historical record. This idea seems indeed to have arisen in the first instance from the assumption that the Mons Circeius was the island of Circe mentioned by Homer, and was therefore in the time of that poet really an island in the midst of the open sea. [CIRCEIUS MONS.] But it is far more strange that Pliny should assert, on the authority of Theophrastus, that the accumulation had taken place in great part since the

time of that writer; though Theophrastus himself tells us distinctly that the island was in his days united to the mainland by the accumulated deposits of certain rivers. (Theophr. H. P. v. 8. § 3; Plin. iii. 5. s. 9.) Another tradition, preserved to us also by Pliny (l. c.), but wholly at variance with the last, asserted that the tract then covered by marshes, and rendered uninhabitable by them, had formerly been occupied by no less than 24 (or, according to some MSS., 33) cities. But no trace of this fact, which he cites from Mucianus, an author contemporary with himself, is to be found in any earlier writer; and not even the name of one of these supposed cities has been preserved; there can therefore be little doubt that the whole story has arisen from some misconception.

The Pomptine Marshes are generally represented as deriving their name from the city of Suessa Pometia, which appears to have been situated somewhere on their borders, though we have no clue to its precise position. [SUESSA POMETIA]. The "Pomptinus ager," which is repeatedly mentioned by Livy, and which was cultivated with corn, and part of it portioned out in lots to Roman colonists (Liv. ii. 34, iv. 25, vi. 5, 21) was probably rather the district bordering on the marshes than the actual swampy tract, which does not appear to have been ever effectually reclaimed; though a very moderate amount of industry must at any time have sufficed to bring into cultivation considerable portions of the adjoining plain. As early, however, as the year 312 B. C. the Appian Way appears to have been carried through the midst of the marshes (Liv. ix. 29; Diod. xx. 36), and a canal conducted along with it from Forum Appii to Tarracina, which became also much resorted to as a mode of traffic. [VIA APPIA.] The institution of the Pomptine tribe in B. C. 358, and of the Ufentine tribe in B. c. 318 (Liv. vii. 15, ix. 20), would seem also to point to the existence of a considerable population in the neighbourhood at least of the Pomptine Marshes; but still we have unequivocal testimony of the continued existence of the marshes themselves in all periods of antiquity. (Sil. Ital. viii. 380; Strab. v. p. 233, &c.)

nation of which gives rise to these marshes, is very considerable; and it is only by carrying these off in artificial channels to the sea that any real progress can be made in the drainage of the district.

Various attempts were made in ancient times to drain the Pontine Marshes. The first of these was in B. c. 160, by the consul Cornelius Cethegus, which, according to the brief notice transmitted to us, would seem to have been for a time successful (Liv. Epit. xlvi.); but it is probable that the result attained was in reality but a partial one; and we find them relapsing into their former state before the close of the Republic, so that the drainage of the Pontine Marshes is noticed among the great public works projected by the dictator Caesar, which he did not live to execute. (Suet. Caes. 44; Plut. Caes. 58; Dion Cass. xliv. 5.) It would appear that on this occasion also some progress was made with the works, so that a considerable extent of land was reclaimed for cultivation, which M. Antonius proposed to divide among the poorer Roman citizens. (Dion Cass. xlv. 9.) Horace alludes to a similar work as having been accomplished by Augustus (Hor. Art. Poet. 65; Schol. Crug. ad loc.); but we find no mention of this elsewhere, and may therefore probably conclude that no great success attended his efforts. Juvenal alludes to the Pontine Marshes as in his time a favourite resort of robbers and highwaymen (Juv. iii. 307); a sufficient proof that the district was one thinly inhabited. The enterprise seems to have been resumed by Trajan in connection with his restoration of the Appian Way through the same district (Dion Cass. lxviii. 15); but we have no particular account of his works, though inscriptions confirm the account given by Dion Cassius of his renovation of the highroad. The next serious attempt we hear of to drain this marshy tract was that under Theodoric, which is recorded both by Cassiodorus and by an inscription still extant at Terracina. (Cassiodor. Var. ii. 32, 33; Gruter, Inscr. p. 152. 8.) But in the period that followed the works naturally fell into decay, and the whole tract relapsed into an uninhabitable state, which continued till the close of the middle ages. Nor was it till quite modern times that any important works were undertaken with a view to reclaim it. Pope Pius VI. was the first to reopen the line of the Appian Way, which had been aban

The actual marshes are formed principally by the stagnation of the waters of two streams, the AMASENUS and the UFENS, both rising in the Volscian mountains. (Strab. v. p. 233.) Of these the latter was the most considerable, and appears to have been regarded as the principal stream, of which the Amasenus was only a tributary. The Ufens is described as a slow and sluggish stream; and Silius Italicus, amplifying the hints of Virgil, draws a dreary picture of its waters, black with mud, winding their slow way through the pestiferous Pomptine plains. (Virg. Aen. vii. 801; Sil. Ital. viii. 379-382; Claudian. Prob. et Ol. Cons. 257.) But, besides these, several minor streams either flow down from the Volscian mountains, or rise immediately at their foot in copious springs of clear water, as is commonly the case with all limestone mountains. The NYMPHAEUS, which rises at the foot of the hill at Norba, is the most remarkable instance of this. Thus the whole mass of waters, the stag

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canal by its side, extending from Treponti to Terracina. This canal takes the place of that which existed in the time of Horace and Strabo, and formed the customary mode of transit for travellers proceeding from Forum Appii to Tarracina. (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 10-24; Strab. v. p. 233; Lucan, iii. 85.) It is evidently the same which is called by Procopius (B. G. i.11) the Decennovium, a name which could only be applied to an artificial cut or canal, though that author terms it a river. The " nineteen miles" indicated by the name commenced from Tripontium (Treponti), from whence the canal was carried in a straight line to within 3 miles of Tarracina. It was this portion of the road which, as we learn from an inscription, was restored by Trajan; and the canal was doubtless constructed or restored at the same time. Hence Cassiodorus applies the name of "Decennovii paludes" to the whole tract of the Pontine Marshes. (Cassiod. Var. ii. 32, 33.)

The SATURAE PALUS, mentioned both by Virgil and Silius Italicus in connection with the river