ancient authors bearing upon his subject, but he had himself travelled over a great part of Italy, noting the distances and observing the remains of ancient towns. It is to be regretted that he has not left us more detailed accounts of these remains of antiquity, which have in many cases since disappeared, or have not been visited by any more recent traveller. Lucas Holstenius, the contemporary and friend of Cluver, who had also visited in person nany of the more unfrequented districts of Italy, has left us, in his notes on Cluverius (Adnotationes ad Cluverii Italiam Antiquam, 8vo. Romae, 1666), a valuable supplement to the larger work, as well as many important corrections on particular points.

It is singular how little we owe to the researches of modern travellers in Italy. Not a single book of travels has ever appeared on that country which can be compared with those of Leake or Dodwell in Greece. Swinburne's Travels in the Two Sicilies is one of the best, and greatly superior to the more recent works of Keppel Craven on the same part of Italy (Tour through the Southern Provinces of the Kingdom of Naples, 4to. Lond. 1821; Excursions in the Abruzzi and Northern Provinces of Naples, 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1838). Eustace's well-known book (Classical Tour through Italy in 1802) is almost wholly worthless in an antiquarian point of view. Sir R. Hoare's Classical Tour, intended as a sort of supplement to the preceding, contains some valuable notes from personal observation. Dennis's recent work on Etruria (Cities and Cemeteries of the Etruscans, 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1848) contains a far more complete account of the antiquities and topography of that interesting district than we possess concerning any other part of Italy. Sir W. Gell's Topography of Rome and its Vicinity (2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1834; 2nd edit. 1 vol. 1846*), taken in conjunction with the more elaborate work of Nibby on the same district (Analisi della Carta dei Dintorni di Roma, 3 vols. 8vo. Rome, 1849), supplies much valuable information, especially what is derived from the personal researches of the author, but is far from fulfilling all that we require. The work of Westphal on the same subject (Die Römische Kampagne, 4to. Berlin, 1829) is still more imperfect, though valuable for the care which the author bestowed on tracing out the direction and remains of the ancient roads throughout the district in quesAbeken's Mittel Italien (8vo. Stuttgart, 1843) contains a good sketch of the physical geography of Central Italy, and much information concerning the antiquities of the different nations that inhabited it; but enters very little into the topography of the regions he describes. The publications of the Instituto Archeologico at Rome (first commenced in 1829, and continued down to the present time), though directed more to archaeological than topographical researches, still contain many valuable memoirs in illustration of the topography of certain districts, as well as the still existing remains in ancient localities.

tion.

dulity, or still blinder partiality to the native city of each particular author. Even on those points en which their testimony would appear most likely to be valuable, such as notices of ruins, inscriptions, and other remains of antiquity, it must too often be received with caution, if not with suspicion. A striking exception to this general remark will be found in the treatise of Galateo, De Situ Iapygiae (8vo. Basel, 1551; republished by Graevius in the Thesaurus Antiquitatum Italiae, vol. ix. part v.): those of Barrio on Calabria (the modern province of the name) and Antonini on Lucania (Barrius, de Antiquitate et Situ Calabriae, fol. Romae, 1737; Antonini, La Lucania, 4to. Naples, 1741), though not without their merit, are of far inferior value. The results of these local researches, and the conclusions of their authors, will be for the most part found, in a condensed form, in the work of the Abate Romanelli (Antica Topografia Istorica del Regno di Napoli, 3 vols. 4to. Naples, 1815), which, notwithstanding the defects of imperfect scholarship and great want of critical sagacity, will still be found of the greatest service to the student for the part of Italy to which it relates. Cramer, in his well-known work, has almost implicitly followed Romanelli, as far as the latter extends; as for the rest of Italy he has done little more than abridge the work of Cluverius, with the corrections of his commentator Holstenius. Mannert, on the contrary, appears to have composed his Geographie von Italien without consulting any of the local writers at all, and consequently without that detailed acquaintance with the actual geography of the country which is the indispensable foundation of all inquiries into its ancient topography. Reichard's work, which appears to enjoy some reputation in Germany, is liable in a still greater degree to the same charge:* while that of Forbiger is a valuable index of references both to ancient and modern writers, but aspires to little more. Kramer's monography of the Lake Fucinus (Der Fuciner See, 4to. Berlin, 1839) may be mentioned as a perfect model of its kind, and stands unrivalled as a contribution to the geography of Italy. Niebuhr's Lectures on the Geography of Italy (in his Vorträge über Alte Länder u. Völker-kunde, pp. 318-576) contain many valuable and important views, especially of the physical geography in its connection with the history of the inhabitants, and should be read by every student of antiquity, though by no means free from errors of detail. [E. H. B.]

ITA'LICA (ITάλika, Strab. iii. p. 141; Ptol. ii. 4. § 13; 'ITAλIKH, Appian, Hisp. 38; Steph. B. s. v.), a Roman city, in the country of the Turdetani, in Hispania Baetica, on the right bank of the Baetis, opposite HISPALIS (Seville), from which it was distant only 6 M. P. to the NW. (Itin. Ant. p. 413, comp. p. 432.) It was founded by Scipio Africanus, on the site of the old Iberian town of Sancios, in the Second Punic War (B. C. 207), and peopled with his disabled veterans; whence its name,

cipium: it is mentioned more than once in the history of the Civil Wars: and it was the native place of the emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosius the Great, and, as some say, of the poet Silius Italicus. (See Dict. of Greek and Rom. Biog. s. v.)

successor,

Its coins, all of the imperial age, bear military emblems which attest the story of its origin, and on some of them is the title JULIA AUGUSTA. The city flourished under the Goths, and, for some time, under the Moors, who preserved the old name, in the form Talika or Talca; but, in consequence of a change in the bed of the river, its inhabitants abandoned it, and migrated to Seville. Hence, in contradistinction to the city which (although far more ancient, see HISPALIS) became thus its virtual Italica received the name of Old Seville (Sevilla la Vieja), under which name its ruins still exist near the wretched village of Santi Ponce, while the surrounding country retains the ancient name, los campos de Talca. The chief object in the ruins is the amphitheatre, which was in good preservation till 1774," when it was used by the corporation of Seville for river dikes, and for making the road to Badajoz." (Ford.) Mr. Ford also states, that "on Dec. 12, 1799, a fine mosaic pavement was discovered, which a poor monk, named Jose Moscoso, to his honour, enclosed with a wall, in order to save it from the usual fate in Spain. Didot, in 1802, published for Laborde a splendid folio, with engravings and description. ... Now, this work is all that remains, for the soldiers of Soult converted the enclosure into a goat-pen." The only other portion of the ruins of Italica to be seen aboveground consists of some vaulted brick tanks, called La Casa de los Baños, which were the reservoirs of the aqueduct brought by Adrian from Tejada, 7 leagues distant. (Caes. B. C. ii. 20; Bell. Alex. 53; Gell. Noct. Att. xv. 13; Oros. v. 23; Geog. Rav.; Florez, Esp. S. vol. xii. pp. 227, foll.; Coins, ap. Florez, Med. de Esp. vol. ii. p. 477; Mionnet, vol. i. p. 17, Suppl. vol. i. p. 31; Sestini, p. 61; Eckhel, vol. i. p. 23; Ukert, vol. ii. pt. 1. p. 372; Ford, Handbook of Spain, pp. 63, 64.)

[P.S.]

ITA'LICA. [CORFINIUM.] ITANUM PR. [ITANUS.] ITANUS ('Iravos, Ptol. iii. 17. § 4; Steph. B.: Eth. 'Irários), a town on the E. coast of Crete, near the promontory which bore the name of Itanum. (Plin. iv. 12.) In Coronelli's map there is a place called Itagnia, with a Paleokastron in the neighbourhood, which is probably the site of Itanus; the position of the headland must be looked for near Xacro fiume (Höck, Kreta, vol. i. p. 426), unless it be placed further N. at Capo Salomon, in which case the Grandes islands would correspond with the ONISIA and LEUCE of Pliny (l. c.; comp. Mus. Class. Antiq. vol. ii. p. 303).

According to Herodotus (iv. 151), the Theraeans, when founding Cyrene, were indebted for their knowledge of the Libyan coast to Corobius, a seller of purple at Itanus. Some of the coins of this city present the type of a woman terminating in the tail of a fish. (Eckhel, vol. ii. p. 314.) This type, recalling the figure of the Syrian goddess, coupled with the trade in purple, suggests a nician origin.

[E. B. J.]

ITHACA (Ιθάκη: Eth. Ιθακήσιος and Ιθακός: Ithacensis and Ithacus: Thiaki, Oláкn, vulgarly; but this is merely an alteration, by a simple metathesis of the two first letters, from '10άn, which is known to be the correct orthography by the Ithacans themselves, and is the name used by all educated Greeks. Leake, Northern Greece, chap. xxii.) This island, so celebrated as the scene of a large portion of the Homeric poems, lies off the coast of Acarnania, and is separated from Cephallenia by a channel about 3 or 4 miles wide. Its name is said by Eustathius (ad Il. ii. 632) to have been derived from the eponymous hero Ithacus, mentioned in Od. xviii. 207. Strabo (x. 2) reckons the circumference of Ithaca at only 80 stadia: but this measurement is very short of the truth; its extreme length from north to south being about 17 miles, its greatest breadth about 4 miles, and its area nearly 45 sq. miles. The island may be described as a ridge of limestone rock, divided by the deep and wide Gulf of Molo into two nearly equal parts, connected by a narrow isthmus not more than half-a-mile across, and on which stands the Paleocastro of Actos (Aerós), traditionally known as the "Castle of Ulysses." Ithaca everywhere rises into rugged hills, of which the chief is the mountain of Anoge ('Avwyn: Ital. Ancí), in the northern division, which is identified with the NERITOs of Virgil (Aen. iii. 271) and the Nýpirov elvoσíquλλov of Homer (Od. ix. 21). Its forests have now disappeared; and this is, doubtless, the reason why rain and dew are not so common here in the present as in Homer's age, and why the island no longer abounds in hogs fattened on acorns like those guarded by Eumaeus. In all other points, the poet's descriptions (Od. iv. 603, seq., xiii. 242, seq., ix. 27, seq.) exhibit a perfect picture of the island as it now appears, the general aspect being one of ruggedness and sterility, rendered striking by the bold and broken outline of the mountains and cliffs, indented by numerous harbours and creeks (Aiμéves пávopμoi, Od. xiii. 193). The climate is healthy (ayaoǹ Kоvротрócos, Od. ix. 27). It may here be observed, that the expressions applied to Ithaca, in Od. ix. 25, 26, have puzzled all the commentators ancient and modern: ·

:

αὐτὴ δὲ χθαμαλὴ πανυπέρτατη εἶν ἁλὶ κεῖται πρὸς ζόφον, αἱ δὲ ἄνευθε πρὸς ἠῶ τὸ ἠέλιόν τε. (Cf. Nitzsch, ad loc.; also Od. x. 196.) Strabo (x. 2) gives perhaps the most satisfactory explanation: he supposes that by the epithet xoaμaλn the poet intended to express how Ithaca lies under, as it were, the neighbouring mountains of Acarnania; while by that of Tavuπeртárη he meant to denote its position at the extremity of the group of islands formed by Zacynthus, Cephallenia, and the Echinades. another explanation, see Wordsworth, Greece, Pictorial, &c., pp. 355, seq.

For

H

while he believes the modern capital town of Bathý to occupy the site of Crocyleia. (Il. l. c.) It is true that Strabo (pp. 376, 453) places Aegilips and Crocyleia in Leucas; but this appears inconsistent with Homer and other ancient authorities. (See Leake, l. c.)

Plutarch (Quaest. Graec. 43) and Stephanus B. (s. v.) state that the proper name of the ancient capital of Ithaca was Alcomenae or Alalcomenae, and that Ulysses bestowed this appellation upon it from his having been himself born near Alalcomenae in Boeotia. But this name is not found in Homer; and a passage in Strabo tends to identify it with the ruins on the isthmus of Aetos, where the fortress and royal residence of the Ithacan chieftains probably stood, on account of the advantages of a position so easily accessible to the sea both on the eastern and western sides. It is argued by Leake (l. c.) that the Homeric capital city was at Polis, a little harbour on the NW. coast of the island, where some Hellenic remains may still be traced. For the poet (Od. iv. 844, seq.) represents the suitors as lying in wait for Telemachus on his return from Peloponnesus at Asteris, "a small island in the channel between Ithaca and Samos (Cephalonia)," where the only island is that now called Aaoкáλiov, situated exactly opposite the entrance to Port Polis. The traditional name of Polis is alone a strong argument that the town, of which the remains are still visible there, was that which Seylax (in Acarnania), and still more especially Ptolemy (iii. 14), mentions as having borne the same name as the island. It seems highly probable that Tóλis, or the city, was among the Ithacans the most common designation of their chief town. And if the Homeric capital was at Polis, it will follow that Mt. Neium, under which it stood ('10άкns Trovηtov, Od. iii. 81), was the mountain of Exoge (Ital. Exoi), at the northern extremity of the island, and that one of its summits was the Hermaean hill ('Epuaîos λópos, Od. xvi. 471) from which Eumaeus saw the ship of Telemachus entering the harbour. It becomes probable, also, that the harbour Rheithrum ('Peipov), which was 66 under Neium" but "apart from the city" (voodi móλnos, Od. i. 185), may be identified with either of the neighbouring bays of Afales or Frikés. Near the village of Exoge may be observed the substructions of an ancient building, probably a temple, with several steps and niches cut in the rock. These remains are now called by the neighbouring peasants "the School of Homer."

The Homeric "Fountain of Arethusa " is identified with a copious spring which rises at the foot of a cliff fronting the sea, near the SE. extremity of Ithaca. This cliff is still called Korax (Kópağ), and is, doubtless, that alluded to at Od. xiii. 407, seq., xiv. 5, seq., xiv. 398. (See, especially on this point, Leake, l. c., and Mure, Tour in Greece, vol. i. p. 67, seq.)

The most remarkable natural feature of Ithaca is the Gulf of Molo, that inlet of the sea which nearly divides the island into two portions; and the most remarkable relic of antiquity is the socalled "Castle of Ulysses," placed, as has been already intimated, on the sides and summit of the steep hill of Aëtós, on the connecting isthmus. Here may be traced several lines of inclosure, testifying the highest antiquity in the rude structure of massive stones which compose them. The position of several gates is distinctly marked; there are also traces of a tower and of two large subterranean cis

The

terns. There can be little doubt that this is the spot to which Cicero (de Orat. i. 44) alludes in praising the patriotism of Ulysses—“ut Ithacam illam in asperrimis saxis tanquam nidulam affixam sapientissimus vir immortalitati anteponeret." name of Aetos, moreover, recalls the striking scene in Od. ii. 146, seq. At the base of this hill there have been discovered several ancient tombs, sepulchral inscriptions, vases, rings, medals, &c. The coins of Ithaca usually bear the head of Ulysses, with the pileus, or conical cap, and the legend '10ak@v; the reverse exhibiting a cock, an emblem of the hero's vigilance, Athena, his tutelar deity, or other devices of like import. (See Eckhel.)

The Homeric port of Phorcys (Od. xiii. 345) is supposed to be represented by a small creek now called Dexia (probably because it is on the right of the entrance to the harbour of Bathý), or by another creek now called Skhinos, both on the southern side of the Gulf of Molo. (Leake, l. c.) At a cave on the side of Mount Stephanos or Merovugli, above this gulf, and at some short distance from the sea, is placed the "Grotto of the Nymphs," in which the sleeping Ulysses was deposited by the Phoenicians who brought him from Scheria. (Od. xiii. 116, seq.) Leake (l. c.) considers this to be "the only point in the island exactly corresponding to the poet's data."

The modern capital of Ithaca extends in a narrow strip of white houses round the southern extremity of the horse-shoe port, or "deep" (Batú), from which it derives its name, and which is itself but an inlet of the Gulf of Molo, often mentioned already. After passing through similar vicissitudes to those of its neighbours, Ithaca is now one of the seven Ionian Islands under the protectorate of Great Britain, and contains a population exceeding 10,000 souls, — an industrious and prosperous community. It has been truly observed that there is, perhaps, no spot in the world where the influence of classical associations is more lively or more pure; for Ithaca is indebted for no part of its interest to the rival distinctions of modern annals, so much as its name scarcely occurring in the page of any writer of historical ages, unless with reference to its poetical celebrity. Indeed, in A. D. 1504, it was nearly, if not quite, uninhabited, having been depopulated by the incursions of Corsairs; and record is still extant of the privileges accorded by the Venetian government to the settlers (probably from the neighbouring islands and from the mainland of Greece) by whom it was repeopled. (Leake, l. c.; Bowen, Ithaca in 1850, p. 1.)

It has been assumed throughout this article that the island still called Ithaca is identical with the Homeric Ithaca. Of that fact there is ample testimony in its geographical position, as well as in its internal features, when compared with the Odyssey. To every sceptic we may say, in the words of Athena to Ulysses (Od. xiii. 344),

ἀλλ ̓ ἄγε τοι δείξω Ιθάκης ἕδος ὄφρα πεποίθης. (The arguments on the sceptical side of the question have been collected by Völcker, Homer. Geogr. 46

D'Anville makes out Caesar's distance of 30 M. P. thus. He reckons 22 or 24 M. P., at most, from Portus Itius to the English cliffs, and 8 miles from his anchorage under the cliffs to his landingplace make up 30. Perhaps Caesar means to estimate the whole distance that he sailed to his landing place; and if this is so, his estimate of "about 30 Roman miles" is not far from the truth, and quite as near as we can expect. Strabo (p. 199) makes the distance 320 stadia, or only 300, according to a note of Eustathius on Dionysius Periegetes (v. 566), who either found 300 in his copy of Strabo, or made a mistake about the number; for he derived his information about Caesar's passage only from Strabo. It may be observed here that Strabo mentions two expeditions of Caesar, and only one port of embarkation, the Itius. He understood Caesar in the same way as all people will do who can draw a conclusion from premises. But even 300 stadia is too great a distance from Wissant to the British coast, if we reckon 8 stadia to the Roman mile; but there is good reason, as D'Anville says, for making 10 stadia to the mile here Pliny gives the distance from Boulogne to Britannia, that is, we must assume, to the usual landing place, Rutupiae, at 50 M. P., which is too much; but it seems to be some evidence that he could not suppose Boulogne to be Caesar's place of embarkation.

Caesar mentions another port near Itius. He calls it the Ulterior Portus (iv. 22, 23, 28), or Superior, and it was 8 M.P. from Itius. We might assume from the term Ulterior, which has reference to Itius, that this port was further to the north and east than Itius; and this is proved by what he says of the wind. For the wind which carried him to Britannia on his first expedition, his direct course being nearly north, prevented the ships at the Ulterior Portus from coming to the place where Caesar embarked (iv. 23). The Ulterior, or Superior, Portus is between Wissant and Calais, and may be Sangatte. Calais is too far off. When Caesar was returning from his first expedition (iv. 36, 37) two transport ships could not Inake the same portus-the Itius and the Ulterior or Superior-that the rest of the ships did, but were carried a little lower down (paulo infra), that is, further south, which we know to be Caesar's meaning by comparing this with another passage (iv. 28). Caesar does not say that these two ships landed at a "portus," as Ukert supposes (Gallien, p. 554), who makes a port unknown to Caesar, and gives it the name "Inferior."

Du Cange, Camden, and others, correctly took

MAP ILLUSTRATING THE POSITION OF PORTUS ITIUS.

A. A. Strait of Dover, or Pas de Calais. 1. Portus Itius (Wissant). 2. Itium Pr. (Cap Grisnez). 3. Gesoriacum, afterwards Bononia (Boulogne). 4. Calais. 5. Sandgate. 6. Portus Dubris (Dover). 7. Rutupiae (Richborough). 8. River Stour. 9. Cantium Pr. (North Foreland). 10. Regulbium (Reculver). that of two middle age Latin writers who mention. the passage of Alfred, brother of St. Edward, into England, one calls Wissant Portus Iccius, and the other Portus Wisanti. D'Anville conjectures that Wissant means "white sand," and accordingly the promontory Itium would be the White, a very good name for it. But the word "white," and its various forms, is Teutonic, and not a Celtic word, so far as the writer knows; and the word "Itius" existed in Caesar's time on the coast of the Morini, a Celtic people, where we do not expect to see a Teutonic name.

Wissant was known to the Romans, for there are traces of a road from it to Taruenna (Therouenne). It is no port now, and never was a port in the modern sense, but it was very well suited for Caesar to draw. his ships up on the beach, as he did when he landed in England; for Wissant is a wide, sheltered, sandy bay. Froissart speaks of Wissant as a large town in 1346.

A great deal has been written about Caesar's voyages. The first and the best attempt to explain it, though it is not free from some mistakes, is Dr. Halley's, of which an exposition is given in the Classical Museum, No. xiii., by G. Long. D'Anville, with his usual judgment, saw that Itius must be Wissant, but he supposed that Caesar landed at Hythe, south of Dover. Walckenaer (Géog. des Gaules, vol. i. pp. 448, 452) has some remarks on Itius, which he takes to be Wissant; and there are remarks on Portus Itius in the Gentleman's Magazine for September, 1846, by H. L. Long, Esq. Perhaps the latest examination of the matter is in G. Long's edition of Caesar, Note on Caesar's British Expeditions, pp. 248-257. What the later German geographers and critics, Ukert and others, have said of these voyages is of no value at all.

[G. L.]