CHAP. I.-HISTORY.

It is not unusual for the enemies of the Bible to point out the Chinese as a people whose records are more ancient than Noah's flood, and even than the common term assigned as the epoch of the Mosaic creation. But although the Chinese possess an unbroken series of annals for a very long period, no dependence can be placed upon it, either on the ground of physical or moral circumstances. Their books are written on very brittle paper, and have been frequently re-copied. It is a well-established fact, also, that about two centuries before the Christian era, a barbarous monarch caused all their writings then in existence to be destroyed. In addition, their national vanity leads them to gloss over every fact which militates against their pretensions, and their habitual falsehood stifles every scruple as to a deviation from the truth. Every nation has its fabulous history, and is inclined to assume a high antiquity. Scotland, among the rest, has exhibited a long gallery of fictitious monarchs; and why should any more reliance be placed on the early annals of China than on those of other countries? Are Pe-kis and Ki-pis, Kang-nangs and Nang-kangs, Tong-wongs and Wong-tongs, more worthy of credit than Boeces and Buchanans?

It would be idle and insipid to trace out the annals of China with minuteness; for, besides that little dependence can be placed upon them, they contain little to rouse the sympathy of the reader, and are wholly unconnected with European interests. The most interesting particulars of the Chinese history relate to the incursions of the Tartars, who at last conquered the whole empire, and who still continue to hold the sovereignty; though, by transferring the seat of empire to Pe-king, and adopting the language and manners of the Chinese, Tartary would seem rather to have been conquered by China, than China by Tartary. In the earlier ages of its existence, the empire of China must have been composed of various tribes, who changed their place of residence as circumstances required. This is sufficiently established by such events as the following, recorded in Chinese histories, namely, that in the year 1401 before Christ (1500 years after the pretended commencement of the monarchies), the emperor Poenkeng emigrated, with all his subjects, to a new settlement, and assigned the example of his ancestors in vindication of the measure; that in 1122, the empire was conquered by Voo-vang, at the head of the Tcheoo, a people whom one of their succeeding sovereigns affirmed to be far from numerous; that the different tributary kingdoms, subdued by the founder of that dynasty, soon ceased to acknowledge the authority of his successors, and that at length the most powerful of them, the Tsin, introduced a new race of sovereigns, 255 years before Christ; that the fourth emperor of this new dynasty, Shie-hoang-tee, was the first who effectually reduced these independent princes, and thus became sole master of the empire; but found such a variety of usages among these constituent parts of his dominions, that he could devise no better expedient for removing all traces of their disunion, and compelling them to live under the same laws, than to cause all their historical records to be destroyed, in the year 213 before Christ.

The Chinese empire, now united for the first time, did not long continue under one head, but was soon dismembered into distinct sovereignties, till it was again established by Kao-tee, the founder of the Han dynasty, 200 years before Christ. About 220 years after the Christian era, it was again divided into three kingdoms; that of the Han, in the provinces of Se-tchuen and Shensee; that of the Oey, in the northern part of China; and that of

the Oo, in the southern regions. These three kingdoms and the reigning families were again annihilated by Voo-tee, who founded the dynasty of the western Tsin, A.D. 265; while Yuen-ty, in like manner, established that of the eastern Tsin, A.D. 317; but neither of these princes were long in possession of all China, and several provinces revolted during their respective reigns. After the destruction of their dynasty, A.D. 420, the whole country was thrown into a state of confusion, which gave rise to two empires, the northern and the southern. The empire of the north was almost constantly occupied by the Oey or Tartars named Topa, of whom the Yuen Oey (or first Oey) reigned in Shan-see and Honan from A.D. 386 to 534; the Tong-Oey (or eastern Oey) reigned in Honan from A.D. 534 to 550, when they were displaced by the family of Pe-tsee, who held the throne till A.D. 578; and the See Oey (or western Oey) reigned in Shen-see from A.D. 535 to 556, when they were displaced by the Heootcheoo (or later Tcheoo), who prevailed till A.D. 581. The empire of the south was held from A.D. 420 to A.D. 479, by the dynasty of Song, which was followed in 479 by that of Tsee; in 503 by that of Leang; and in 557 by that of Tchin. In 581, the two empires were united by Ventee, founder of the Soo-ee dynasty, which was displaced in 618 by that of Tang; during the latter end of whose government, the empire was agitated by new troubles, desolated by the Tartars, named Kee-tan, and divided into so many independent sovereignties, that it was reduced within a very narrow compass, under the Heoo-oo-tay (or five later dynasties): the Heoolang in 907, the Heoo-tang in 923, the Heoo-tsin in 936, the Heoo-han in 947, and the Heoo-tcheoo in 951. These commotions and divisions were once more terminated in 960 by Taytsoo, founder of the dynasty of Song; but the two Tartar nations of Kee-tan and Kin, or Niu-tche, and the prince of Hya still retained possession of the northern parts of China. In 1127, the Kin having destroyed the Kee-tan, the Song were obliged to remove the seat of their empire to a greater distance from these formidable neighbours, and resided in the province of Tche-kiang, till they called in the Yuen or Moguls, called by the Chinese Mong-koo, to assist them against the Kin in 1235, and were themselves overthrown by those allies in 1260, when Kublai-Khan, a descendant of the renowned Gengis-khan, became absolute sovereign of all China. Since the establishment of the Mogul dynasty, the empire has never been again divided; but has experienced two great revolutions, at the accession of the Chinese dynasty of Ming in 1368, and of the Mantchoo Tartars in 1644; and has scarcely, in any reign, been entirely free from revolts, wars, and domestic seditions. The empire of China, in short, instead of having existed as a great and united nation 3000 years before Christ, was never formed into one state till the year before Christ 220; but, being soon again dismembered, and only transiently united under successive sovereigns, has composed one sole and undivided monarchy only since the year of Christ 1279. Instead, therefore, of being regarded as a privileged country, governed from time immemorial by the same constitution, exempt from foreign conquest and intestine commotions the only peculiarity which it possesses, in comparison with the other empires which have disappeared from the earth, is this, that, owing perhaps to its peninsular situation, at the extremity of the habitable world, and its consequent exemption from the sweep of those conquering nations, who changed the people whom they overthrew, it has preserved its manners and usages in a great measure unaltered, amidst the various revolutions and subjugations which it has experienced.

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Five emperors of the Tartar race in succession, and all of them men of good understanding and vigorous minds, have now continued, without interruption, to rule over the Chinese empire; and have thus, it may he supposed, completely established their family in the supreme power. Recent occurrences, however, begin to indicate a more unsettled state of things in that country, and at least to show, that the administration of so vast an empire is becoming daily a more difficult task. The Tartars, increasing in security, have become less attentive to conciliate the Chinese; and all the high offices are filled with the countrymen of the sovereign. It is suspected, that the government entertain a design of introducing the Mantchoo language into general use, instead of the Chinese, as great attention has been paid to its improvement, and as all the children, one of whose parents is of Tartar descent, have been expressly required to be instructed during their infancy, and to pass their public examinations in the Mantchoo tongue.

CHAP. II.-PHYSICAL FEATURES-CLIMATE-PRODUCTIONS. Mountains.] The general aspect of China is that of a level, fertile, and highly cultivated country. Its surface is, however, varied by mountain chains of considerable magnitude, though they seem to be only lower stages of those enormous masses which stretch across central Asia, One chain, seemingly a prolongation of the Himalaya ridge, runs through the southern provinces, from west to east, and terminates on the sea coast, a little to the south of the great river the Yang-tse-kiang. Part of this ridge, lying between Pekin and Canton, has been crossed by Europeans. Being covered with verdure and trees to the very summit, which is in many places crowned with pagodas, it presents a variety of picturesque aspects. The mountains in the north of China appear also to be very considerable, particularly those that separate the province of Shen-si from that of Se-chwen A lofty chain, consisting chiefly of naked rocks, runs along the whole northern frontier, separating China from Tartary. A branch of this chain turns aside the stream of the Hoan-ho five or six hundred miles, though by a circuitous tract it again reaches its original line of course. The province of Shan-tong consists for the most part of a group of mountains wholly detached from any other range, and running out towards the N.E into a large peninsula. These mountains contain coal mines.

Rivers.] China is distinguished for the magnitude of her rivers, and is doubtless indebted to them in a great measure for her early advances in culture and civilization. The Hoan-ho, or Yellow river, and the Yangtse-kiang, or Blue river, two mighty parallel streams, water the whole extent of its central regions. These rivers rise from almost unknown sources in the heart of Thibet, and from the summit probably of that loftiest portion of the globe, The Hoan-ho, after entering China, is, as already noticed, turned to the north, and carried even beyond the limits of the empire, but it soon recrosses them, and this winding course serves only to diffuse more widely the benefits of its waters. After spreading fertility through some of the finest provinces of China, it falls into the ocean at a very small distance from its brother stream, from which it had once been separated by an interval of more than a thousand miles. The course of the Hoan-ho is estimated, though with some uncertainty, at about 1800 miles; that of the Yang-tse-kiang at 2200. This last has by the grandeur of its stream struck all travellers with admiration. Marco Polo consider

the Oo, in the southern regions. These three kingdoms and the reigning families were again annihilated by Voo-tee, who founded the dynasty of the western Tsin, A.D. 265; while Yuen-ty, in like manner, established that of the eastern Tsin, A.D. 317; but neither of these princes were long in possession of all China, and several provinces revolted during their respective reigns. After the destruction of their dynasty, A.D. 420, the whole country was thrown into a state of confusion, which gave rise to two empires, the northern and the southern. The empire of the north was almost constantly occupied by the Oey or Tartars named Topa, of whom the Yuen Oey (or first Oey) reigned in Shan-see and Honan from A.D. 386 to 534; the Tong-Oey (or eastern Oey) reigned in Honan from A.D. 534 to 550, when they were displaced by the family of Pe-tsee, who held the throne till A.D. 578; and the See Oey (or western Oey) reigned in Shen-see from A.D. 535 to 556, when they were displaced by the Heootcheoo (or later Tcheoo), who prevailed till A.D. 581. The empire of the south was held from A.D. 420 to A.D. 479, by the dynasty of Song, which was followed in 479 by that of Tsee; in 503 by that of Leang; and in 557 by that of Tchin. In 581, the two empires were united by Ventee, founder of the Soo-ee dynasty, which was displaced in 618 by that of Tang; during the latter end of whose government, the empire was agitated by new troubles, desolated by the Tartars, named Kee-tan, and divided into so many independent sovereignties, that it was reduced within a very narrow compass, under the Heoo-oo-tay (or five later dynasties): the Heoolang in 907, the Heoo-tang in 923, the Heoo-tsin in 936, the Heoo-han in 947, and the Heoo-tcheoo in 951. These commotions and divisions were once more terminated in 960 by Taytsoo, founder of the dynasty of Song; but the two Tartar nations of Kee-tan and Kin, or Niu-tche, and the prince of Hya still retained possession of the northern parts of China. In 1127, the Kin having destroyed the Kee-tan, the Song were obliged to remove the seat of their empire to a greater distance from these formidable neighbours, and resided in the province of Tche-kiang, till they called in the Yuen or Moguls, called by the Chinese Mong-koo, to assist them against the Kin in 1235, and were themselves overthrown by those allies in 1260, when Kublai-Khan, a descendant of the renowned Gengis-khan, became absolute sovereign of all China. Since the establishment of the Mogul dynasty, the empire has never been again divided; but has experienced two great revolutions, at the accession of the Chinese dynasty of Ming in 1368, and of the Mantchoo Tartars in 1644; and has scarcely, in any reign, been entirely free from revolts, wars, and domestic seditions. The empire of China, in short, instead of having existed as a great and united nation 3000 years before Christ, was never formed into one state till the year before Christ 220; but, being soon again dismembered, and only transiently united under successive sovereigns, has composed one sole and undivided monarchy only since the year of Christ 1279. Instead, therefore, of being regarded as a privileged country, governed from time immemorial by the same constitution, exempt from foreign conquest and intestine commotions; the only peculiarity which it possesses, in comparison with the other empires which have disappeared from the earth, is this, that, owing perhaps to its peninsular situation, at the extremity of the habitable world, and its consequent exemption from the sweep of those conquering nations, who changed the people whom they overthrew, it has preserved its manners and usages in a great measure unaltered, amidst the various revolutions and subjugations which it has experienced.

Five emperors of the Tartar race in succession, and all of them men of good understanding and vigorous minds, have now continued, without interruption, to rule over the Chinese empire; and have thus, it may be supposed, completely established their family in the supreme power. Recent occurrences, however, begin to indicate a more unsettled state of things in that country, and at least to show, that the administration of so vast an empire is becoming daily a more difficult task. The Tartars, increasing in security, have become less attentive to conciliate the Chinese; and all the high offices are filled with the countrymen of the sovereign. It is suspected, that the government entertain a design of introducing the Mantchoo language into general use, instead of the Chinese, as great attention has been paid to its improvement, and as all the children, one of whose parents is of Tartar descent, have been expressly required to be instructed during their infancy, and to pass their public examinations in the Mantchoo tongue.

CHAP. II.-PHYSICAL FEATURES-CLIMATE-PRODUCTIONS.

Mountains.] The general aspect of China is that of a level, fertile, and highly cultivated country. Its surface is, however, varied by mountain chains of considerable magnitude, though they seem to be only lower stages of those enormous masses which stretch across central Asia, One chain, seemingly a prolongation of the Himalaya ridge, runs through the southern provinces, from west to east, and terminates on the sea coast, a little to the south of the great river the Yang-tse-kiang. Part of this ridge, lying between Pekin and Canton, has been crossed by Europeans. Being covered with verdure and trees to the very summit, which is in many places crowned with pagodas, it presents a variety of picturesque aspects. The mountains in the north of China appear also to be very considerable, particularly those that separate the province of Shen-si from that of Se-chwen A lofty chain, consisting chiefly of naked rocks, runs along the whole northern frontier, separating China from Tartary. A branch of this chain turns aside the stream of the Hoan-ho five or six hundred miles, though by a circuitous tract it again reaches its original line of course. The province of Shan-tong consists for the most part of a group of mountains wholly detached from any other range, and running out towards the N.E into a large peninsula. These mountains contain coal mines.

Rivers.] China is distinguished for the magnitude of her rivers, and is doubtless indebted to them in a great measure for her early advances in culture and civilization. The Hoan-ho, or Yellow river, and the Yangtse-kiang, or Blue river, two mighty parallel streams, water the whole extent of its central regions. These rivers rise from almost unknown sources in the heart of Thibet, and from the summit probably of that loftiest portion of the globe. The Hoan-ho, after entering China, is, as already noticed, turned to the north, and carried even beyond the limits of the empire, but it soon recrosses them, and this winding course serves only to diffuse more widely the benefits of its waters. After spreading fertility through some of the finest provinces of China, it falls into the ocean at a very small distance from its brother stream, from which it had once been separated by an interval of more than a thousand miles. The course of the Hoan-ho is estimated, though with some uncertainty, at about 1800 miles; that of the Yang-tse-kiang at 2200. This last has by the grandeur of its stream struck all travellers with admiration. Marco Polo consider