set out for the conquest of the countries N.W. of the Caspian, and such was the rapidity of his marches and ardour of his innumerable squadrons, that in six years he had measured a line of 90 degrees of longitude. The whole of Northern Turkistaun and Kaptschak was overrun, the kingdoms of Astracan and Casan shared a similar fate, the most secret recesses of the Caucasus were explored, and a permanent conquest of Russia was effected, and the capitals of Kiow and Moscow were laid in ashes, and the Russians held under a servitude of 200 years. So complete was the subjugation of Russia, that the descendants of Ruric were compelled, as humble vassals, to bring their tribute on foot, and present it humbly to the representative of the khan on horseback, to make the nine prostrations to the khan, offer him milk to drink, and if any drops of it fell down, to lick them up. Then Poland was overrun, and in the battle of Lignitz, Batoo defeated the dukes of Silesia, the Polish palatines, and the grand master of the Teutonic order, and filled nine sacks with the right ears of the slain. Hungary next shared a worse fate, for the Carpathians, like the wall of China, proved but a feeble barrier to these barbarians of the East. The. whole country was lost in a day, and depopulated in a summer, and the ruins of cities and churches were covered with the bones of the Hungarians, who expiated the sins of their Turkish ancestors. Gran, to the S. of the Danube, then the metropolis of the country, was besieged, stormed, and taken by the Mongols, who had crossed the river on the ice, and of all the cities and fortresses of Hungary three only survived this dreadful calamity, and Bela, their unfortunate monarch, hid his head amongst the islands of the Adriatic. The Mongols advanced as far as Newstadt, near Vienna, but the news of the approach of a German army saved the place, as the Mongols retreated from the Danube to the Volga, wasting in their way the adjacent kingdoms of Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria. A Russian fugitive carried the alarm of invasion to Sweden and the remote nations of the Baltic, and the ocean trembled at the approach of the Tartars, and so great was this terror that the inhabitants of Gothea (Sweden) and Friesland were prevented from sending, as usual, their ships to fish off the English coast, and as there was no exportation, the price of herring fell so low that 50 of these could be got for a shilling. Even the poor and frozen regions of the north attracted the arm of conquest, and a horde of 15,000 families was led by Sheebanee Khan, the brother of Batoo, into the wilds of Siberia, in 1242, and his descendants reigned near Tobolskoy for more than three centuries, till the Russian conquest under the Cossack Yermook Timofiof. Nothing but the sudden death of Batoo, in a second march to attack the capital of the Cæsars, saved Constantinople from the horrors of a siege, or the still more dreadful catastrophe of a storm. But the fury of the tempest at length abated, the tide of conquest gradually recoiled, and the barbarous hordes of Central Asia were finally unable to preserve what they had won. In every invasion, the Toorkish or Mongol hordes, call them which we will, have been uniformly actuated by a sanguinary, savage, and destructive spirit. They destroy every thing, but repair nothing. When the Mongols had subverted the empire of the Kin, and conquered the northern provinces of China, it was seriously proposed, not in the hour of victory and passion, but in calm deliberate council, to exterminate all the inhabitants of these provinces, and convert the whole of the land into pasture and huntinggrounds. But this inhuman measure was prevented by the wisdom and firmness of one man, Yeloo-Chootsay, a Keetan by birth and a mandarin by office. He represented to his savage master, the inhuman Zingis, that the

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four provinces he already possessed, Petchelee, Shantong, Shansee, and Lyautong, would annually produce, under a mild administration, 500,000 ounces of silver, 400,000 measures of rice, and 800,000 pieces of silk, and that it was a much wiser measure to preserve an industrious population, and reap the fruit of their toils, by moderate taxation, than to massacre them. His advice was adopted, and the counsels of this friend of his country and of mankind saved the lives of unoffending and industrious millions. It is a perfect refreshment to one wearied out with the sanguinary tales of victory, blood, conquest, and destruction, to find such a character. It is one of those green spots in the desert of detailed warfare, which delights from contrast to the surrounding cheerless waste. The counsels of this man, who for 30 years was the prime minister of Zengis and Oktay, that at length humanized the victors, and made them, of savages, civilized, and inspired them with a love of the science and arts of their conquered subjects; and the reign of Kublay Khan is the only bright spot in the gloomy annals of the Mongols. Yet this great prince became a convert to the atheistical system of Boodh, and a dupe of the Tibetian lamas and Chinese bonzas. His successors on the throne of Khan-Baligh polluted the palace with a crowd of eunuchs, (the usual bane of oriental despots), physicians, and astrologers, whilst 13 millions of their subjects. perished by famine in the southern provinces of China in 1334, in the reign of the last Mongol emperor, Shun-tee In 1352, Hong-voo, the founder of the Ming dynasty, commenced a successful rebellion in the province of Kyanggnan. His original name was Choo, a man of low origin, and a servant of a Bonzaic monastery, but one whose character admirably fitted him, in this political juncture, to overturn a degenerate and worthless dynasty, which he accomplished, after a warfare of 16 years, in 1368, and drove the Mongols quite out of all China, and their emperors were henceforth lost in the oblivion of the desert. His second successor, Yong-loo, in three successive expeditions, drove the Mongols beyond the Kerlon, the Toola, and the Amoor, into the mountains of Kinggan. The Mongols never ceased, however, to make inroads into China and recover their lost empire, but all proved unsuccessful, and we hear no more of these irruptions after 1582, but they have since lived quietly, feeding their flocks after the manner of their rude ancestors, previous to the era of their great founder Jenghis Khan. The subsequent history of the Khalkhas has already been discussed.

CHAP. II.-SOUTHERN MONGOLIA, OR THE COUNTRY OF THE SHARRA OR YELLOW MONGOLS.

THIS is a very large region, extending from the 124th degree to the 142d degree of longitude E. of Ferro, and from the 38th to the 47th degree of N. latitude, so that its length, from the borders of Mandshooria on the E., to the parts over against Ninghya on the W., is full 900 British miles, and 600 B. miles from N. to S., though not every where so broad, as may be seen on consulting the maps of Du Halde. As we mean to be very brief on this part of Mongolia, we shall merely give a short abstract of its geography and other things pertaining to it, without entering into formal details. This tract lies entirely to the S. and S.E. of the Shamo or great desert, which separates it from the territories of the Khalkhas, to the W. of the Mandshoors, and immediately to the N. of the Great wall.

This territory is full of mountains, especially to the E. and S. and is interspersed with rivers, as the Whang-ho, which passing out of Shensee to the N.E. surrounds the country of the Ortoos Mongols, and then re-enters China, forming the boundary, as it goes S., between Shensee and Shansee, the Shantoo, which enters Petchelee towards the sea, and the Sira Muren, described in our account of the Mandshoors. Their chief mountains are the Siolki chain and its continuation westwards till it joins the Kwanglung. There are many lakes in this country, but none remarkable for magnitude. The climate is piercing cold in many parts, fully as much so as in the country of the Khalkhas, and there is such a similarity in the productions, whether animate or inanimate, of both countries, that one description serves for both. The territories of the Sharra Mongols are denominated from the several tribes which possess them; but since they have come under the absolute power of the celestial monarch, they have been divided into 49 shassaks or standards, under as many chiefs. The situation of these territories may be considered as it respects the four gates of the Great Wall, going from E. to W. N. of the most eastern gate in Petchelee 40° 19′ 30′′ N. and 1° 28′ 30" E. of Peking, are the countries of Karchin or the black tribe, Tumet, Ohan, Nayman, and Korchin.-Karchin, which begins at this gate, is composed of two districts or standards. The most remarkable place is Chahan Suberhan Hotun, or city of the white pyramid, 41° 33′ N. and 2o 45′ 20′′ E. of Peking. It is by far the best district belonging to the Mongols, for as the present princes of it are originally Chinese, they have drawn several of their countrymen hither, who have built towns and improved the lands. Here are also some productive mines, some of excellent tin, with large forests of fine timber, by which the great ancestor of the present dynasty got immense wealth. Karchin is above 145 B. miles from N. to S. but much more from W. to E. Here are the summer-palaces of the Chinese emperors, near which they usually hunt, especially Zheholl, 41o 58' N. lat. 120 miles N. of Peking; and here the British embassy was entertained in 1793. Our countrymen observed forests of aspen, elm, hazel, and walnut-trees, but on the mountains in the vicinity the pines were small and the oaks stunted.-Korchin, or the red tribe, is divided into ten standards, including the countries of Turbeda and the Jalayrs. The principal residence of this tribe is alongst the river Queyler, and their pos-essions extend to the Sira Muren in a S.E. direction, but they have neither springs for drink nor wood for fuel, which they supply by wells and dung of cattle. The principal point of Turbida is Haytahan Pira, 47° 15′ N. and 6° 30′ E. of Peking. The Jalayrs dwell by the Nonnee Oola, in 46° 30′ N. and 7o 45' E. long. of Peking.-The Naymans compose but one standard, and their district begins from the S. side of the Sira Muren, in 43° 37′ N. and 5° E. of Peking.-Ohan is chiefly inhabited alongst the banks of the Narkoni Pira, where some rivulets, as the Shaka-Kol, fall into it 42° 15′ N. and 4o E. of Peking. Here in 41° 15′ N. are seen the ruins of a city called Kurban Suberhan Hotun, on a small streamlet which enters the Talin-Ho. Nayman and Ohan, though far less than Korchin, which is a large province extending four degrees from S. to N. and three from W. to E. are much better than it, being interspersed with shrubby hills, supplying wood for fuel, and abounding with game, especially quails.

These three countries, along with Turbeda, are sandy and very cold. Tumet composes two standards, and they dwell chiefly beyond the river Subarhan, where occur the ruins of Modun Hotun. It extends S. to the wall of China, E. to the palisade of Lyautong, and N. to Hara Paychang.

N. of the gate Kupi Kew (ken means a strait or defile) are the territories, formerly part of Korchen and Onhiot, but now converted into a forest, where the emperor bunts and has several pleasure houses. Kupi Kew is the gate called Kapki by the Russians, and is in 40° 42′ 15′′ N. and 0° 39′ 4′′ E. of Peking. N. of this gate are the districts of Onhiot, Kechikten, Parin, Sharot, Uchu-Muchin, Aru-Korchin, and Abu-hanar. Onhiot has two standards on the river Irikin, 42° 30′ N. and 2o E. of Peking.-Parin contains two standards, and its principal place is on the Hara Muren, which falls into the Sira Muren, 43° 36' N. and 2° 14′ E. of Peking. This district is larger than Onhiot, but has but a poor soil. Kechiktin contains two standards, and its chief station is on a small stream running N.E. to the Sira Muren, 43° N. and 1° 10' E. of do.-Uchu Muchin has two standards along the Hulgar Pira, 44° 45′ N. and 1° 10' E. of do.-Sharot has also two standards, and is inhabited chiefly towards the confluence of the Laban Pira and Sira Muren, 43° 30′ N. 4° 20′ E. Arukorchin has but one banner, which resides on the Arukondulon river, 45° 30′ N. 0° 28′ E.—Abuhanar has two standards, and is best inhabited about the Taal Noor, 43° 30′ N. 0° 28' E. Within this second division, going almost due N. from Kupi Kew, some towns are found, and the ruins of some considerable cities, as Ilan Hotun, Poro Hotun, Kurtu Hotun, and Chau Nayman Sume Hotun,-all on the Shangtu river. The last of these seems to have been the city of Shangtu, called by the Chinese Kay-ping-foo, and built by Kublay Khan, who denominated it Shangtu, or the high court,' and was the summer residence of the Ywen dynasty, who in winter dwelt at Peking. It belongs to the country of Korchin, and is the Ciandoo of Marco Polo. Immediately to the N. of the gate Chang-kyakew is a country which was conquered by the emperor Kanghee, and which is the property of the Chinese emperors. These lands, and all the rest alongst the great wall, are occupied by farmers belonging to his celestial majesty, the princes of the blood, and several Tartar lords. Here are Mongols of different countries arranged under three standards, and commanded by officers appointed by the emperor, and are therefore not reckoned among the 49 Mongol banners. Farther to the N. are the countries of the Mongol princes, of Whachit, Sonhiot, Sabahay, and Twinchooz.-Whachit has two standards, near the Cherin Pira, 44° 6' N. 0° 45′ E.-Sonhiot has two standards, and the principal station is near a lake in 42° 29′ 7′′ by observation, and 1° 28′ W. of Peking.—Abahay has two standards, which encamp about some lakes or meers, the southernmost of which is called Siretu Huchin, 44° N., and 1° 31′ W.Twinchooz has but one banner, near the Orgun Alin, or mount Orgun, 41° 41' N. and 4° 20′ W. N. of the gate Shahu-kew, in Shansee, are the emperor's lands, 40° 27′ and 4° 12′ W. of Peking. In this district, Khuku, or Khutuktoo Hotun, or city of the Lama's vicar amongst the Sharra Mongols, is the most remarkable. Here is a Lama temple where the same pantomime is carried on as at Lassa and Oorga. Here dwell the two chiefs of the Tummet tribe, appointed by the emperor. It is the capital of all the country of the Sharra Mongols, where the imperial governor and the Khutuklu lama reside.-Beyond this district lie those of the Mongol chiefs of Kalka, Targar, Maumingan, Urat, and Ortoos. The two former have only one banner each, and the Virat or Urat has three standards, who range alongst the banks of the Kondulin river, in 40° 55′ N. and 6° 30′ W. of Peking. The Ortoos Mongols are hemmed in on all sides by the great wall and the sweep of the Whang

ho. The chief point of this district, which extends 300 British miles N. and S., is in 39° 30′ N. and 7° 30′ W. of Peking. These Mongols are governed by several petty chiefs under six standards, and pride themselves on the largeness and number of their tents, as well as the multitudes of their flocks. Their country once made part of the empire of Tangut or Hya. Thus we have gone over the territories and standards of the Mongol tribes as briefly as possible. Although all these tribes live a roving life, yet they have their limits fixed by custom, beyond which they must not pass; and an act of this kind would be viewed as hostile. A boundary, called the karou, or limit,' has been fixed by imperial authority between the Khalkhas, or black Mongols, and the Sharra, or yellow Mongols, just described. It runs from S.W. to N.E.

As the Sharra Mongols belong to the same stock as the Khalkhas, the similarity of pastoral manners, customs, mode of life, religious opinions, and other things, is so great, that, in describing the one branch, we have, in fact, described the other. The only difference seems to be, that the latter being in the very vicinity of China, and enjoying the advantage of frequent intercourse with a nation more civilized than themselves, they are consequently somewhat more polished than their more rude and distant kindred. Since 1620, they have been possessed of a code of laws, subscribed by 44 princes and chiefs. In these the greater part of crimes is punished by fines, and actions of public utility are rewarded. He who refuses milk to a traveller is fined of a sheep. Trial by ordeal is admitted; likewise solemn oaths from a superior, attesting the innocence of an inferior, institutions coinciding with those of Europe in the middle ages. The southern Mongols are those of the race which always remained in the vicinity of China, and the Khalkhas such as were driven out of China and retired to the N. Thus we have gone over the two grand branches of the Mongolian family-the Khalkhas and Sharras. There is a third branch of Mongols, which inhabit the northern part of Tibet, and who are denominated, in Tibetian, Hor, and Ghia Hor, or the Ghia of Hor. The name Ghia, in Tibetian, signifies a great and very diffused people. The name of the Tibetian Mongols, in Mongolian, is Siraigol or Charagol. As we are very ignorant of the geography of Tibet, we cannot say much about the site of this Mongol branch; but probably it is about the source of the Whang-ho, in 35° N. lat. and 19° long. W. of Peking; where we find marked, in the 5th sheet of the map of Tibet, two lakes called Charingkol and Oring-kol, and a small stream called Kara Pira, or the 'black river,' descending N. to the Oring-kol. In Tibet, likewise, the Mongols are usually denominated Sogh-po, or 'people of the prairies or meadows,' or, in other words, nomades or wanderers.

11. SOONGARIA, OR COUNTRY OF THE ELUTHS.

IF little is known of the geography of Mongolia, still less is known of Soongaria, and that for two obvious reasons. This country has never been explored by Europeans, nor ever trodden by a European foot since the days of Ruysbroeck, in the middle of the 13th century; whereas, the road for the Russian embassies to China being through Mongolia, we have been enabled to say something of Mongolia, from the journals of these embassies. The second reason is, that, though little is known of Mongolia, yet we had some aids from the Chinese historians to clear our way, and give some idea of the country. But we have not the same aids respecting Soongaria; for if the Chinese know something of their neighbours, yet